26. 27. 28. What distinguishes structural isomers from stereoisomers like cis/trans isoforms or enantiomers? Why is understanding enantiomers important from a biological perspective? What are functional groups in general? Why is it important to understand their structure and properties in a biological context? What is a carboxyl group? At physiological pH, what property(ies) does it confer to a molecule it is a part of? What is an amino group? At physiological pH, what property(ies) does it confer to a molecule it is a part of? What is a hydroxyl group? At physiological pH, how are its chemical properties different from the OH component of the carboxyl group? What property(ies) does it confer to a molecule it is a part of? What is a carbonyl group? What property(ies) does it confer to a What distinguishes aldehydes from ketones? What is a sulfhydryl group? What property(ies) does it confer to a molecule it’s a part of? Why are sulfhydryl groups particularly important in a biological context? What is a phosphate group, and what property(ies) does it confer to the molecule it’s a part of? Why are phosphate groups particularly important in a biological context? What “class” of organic molecule is associated with each of the functional groups we discussed? Compare the arrangement of phosphate groups in adenosine triphosphate and adenosine diphosphate. What is the biological significance of adenosine triphosphate? Based on their chemical properties, which functional groups might be likely to interact with one another? Why? Even though a methyl group contributes no polarity or charge to a molecule it’s a part of, one small methyl group added on to a molecule can nonetheless completely alter that molecule’s biological function. Explain this observation In the case of a D-glucose molecule, what functional groups are present in the chain (linear) form, and what happens to the carbonyl when the molecule forms its more stable ring form? What are monosaccharides and how are pentoses different from hexoses? Which class does glucose fall into? What are disaccharides? Name one commonly found in nature and describe its “function” (in a biological context) How is the synthesis of large biological macromolecules like carbohydrates and proteins an example of a dehydration reaction? 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. molecule it is a part of? 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. In the opposite–or hydrolytic-reaction, where is the “hydrolysis” occurring (using carbohydrates as an example)? 47. How is the alpha form of D-glucose different from beta D-glucose? How does the interconversion between the two forms take place? How do the conformations of the alpha 1,4 and beta 1-4 polymers of D-glucose differ? At the biochemical level, what explains the difference in conformation between the two? How is the structural difference between the alpha 1-4 and beta 1-4 polymers of glucose related to their distinct biological functions? Why does the bulk of the plant material we eat go undigested (compared to, say, the plant matter eaten by a cow)? How are the structure and properties of proteoglycans related to their function as part of the extracellular matrix? Explain how the difference in structure between large, structurally simple polysaccharides (think starch or cellulose) and small structurally complex polysaccharides (like those found on the cell surface glycoproteins) is related to their distinct functions 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. What is the structure of glycerol? Of a fatty acid? How are these molecules related to triacylglycerols? 54. What makes a fatty acid “saturated,” as opposed to “monounsaturated or “polyunsaturated, and how does the level of fatty acid saturation affect the physical/chemical properties of a triacylglycerol?