293

11 BUDGET 305

APPENDIXES 305 ! TECH TIP: How To Create a Gantt Chart 307

Sample Internal Proposal 308

WRITER’S CHECKLIST 316

EXERCISES 316

CASE 11: Revising a Brief Proposal 317 and

A PROPOSAL IS an o!er to carry out research or to provide a product or service. For instance, a physical therapist might write a proposal to her supervisor for funding to attend a convention to learn about current rehabilitation practices. A defense contractor might submit a proposal to design and build a "eet of drones for the Air Force. A homeless shelter might submit a proposal to a philanthropic organization for funding to provide more services to the homeless community. Whether a project is small or big, within your own company or outside it, it is likely to call for a proposal.

When writing a proposal, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process.

PLANNING Consider your readers’ knowledge about and attitudes toward what you are proposing. Use the techniques discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 to learn as much as you can about your readers’ needs and about the subject. Also consider whether you have the personnel, facilities, and equipment to do what you propose.

DRAFTING Collaboration is critical in large proposals because no one person has the time and expertise to do all the work. See Chapter 3 for more about collaboration. In writing the proposal, follow the instructions in any request for proposal (RFP) or information for bid (IFB) from the prospective customer. If there are no instructions, follow the structure for proposals outlined in this chapter.

REVISING

EDITING

PROOFREADING

F O C U S O N P R O C E S S Writing Proposals

External proposals usually have a #rm deadline. Build in time to revise, edit, and proofread the proposal thoroughly and still get it to readers on time. See the Writer’s Checklist on page 316.

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WRITING PROPOSALS11 294

The Logistics of Proposals Proposals can be classi!ed as either internal or external; external proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Figure 11.1 shows the relationships among these four terms.

Proposals

External

Internal

Solicited

Unsolicited

FIGURE 11.1 The Logistics of Proposals

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS Internal proposals are submitted to the writer’s own organization; external proposals are submitted to another organization.

Internal Proposals An internal proposal is an argument, submitted within an organization, for carrying out an activity that will bene!t the organization. An internal proposal might recommend that the organization conduct research, purchase a product, or change some aspect of its policies or procedures.

For example, while working on a project in the laboratory, you realize that if you had a !ber-curl measurement system, you could do your job better and faster. The increased productivity would save your company the cost of the system in a few months. Your supervisor asks you to write a memo describing what you want, why you want it, how you plan to use it, and what it costs; if your request seems reasonable and the money is available, you’ll likely get the new system.

Often, the scope of a proposal determines its format. A request for a small amount of money might be conveyed orally or by email or a brief memo. A request for a large amount, however, is likely to be presented in a formal report.

External Proposals No organization produces all the products or pro- vides all the services it needs. Websites need to be designed, written, and maintained; inventory databases need to be created; facilities need to be constructed. Sometimes projects require unusual expertise, such as sophisti- cated market analyses. Because many companies supply these products and

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The “Deliverables” of Proposals 11 295

services, most organizations require a prospective supplier to compete for the business by submitting a proposal, a document arguing that it deserves the business.

SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS External proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. A solicited proposal is submitted in response to a request from the prospective customer. An unso- licited proposal is submitted by a supplier who believes that the prospective customer has a need for goods or services.

Solicited Proposals When an organization wants to purchase a product or service, it publishes one of two basic kinds of statements:

r� "O�information for bid (IFB) is used for standard products. When a state agency needs desktop computers, for instance, it informs computer manufacturers of the con!guration it needs. All other things being equal, the supplier that offers the lowest bid for a product with that con!guration wins the contract. When an agency solicits bids for a speci!c brand and model, the solicitation is sometimes called a request for quotation (RFQ).

r� "�request for proposal (RFP) is used for more-customized products or services. For example, if the Air Force needs an “identi!cation, friend or foe” system, the RFP it publishes might be a long and detailed set of technical speci!cations. The supplier that can design, produce, and deliver the device most closely resembling the speci!cations—at a reasonable price—will probably win the contract.

Most organizations issue IFBs and RFPs in print and online. Govern- ment solicitations are published on the FedBizOpps website. Figure 11.2 on page"296 shows a portion of an RFQ.

Unsolicited Proposals An unsolicited proposal is like a solicited proposal except that it does not refer to an RFP. In most cases, even though the poten- tial customer did not formally request the proposal, the supplier was invited to submit the proposal after people from the two organizations met and discussed the project. Because proposals are expensive to write, suppliers are reluctant to submit them without assurances that they will be considered carefully. Thus, the word unsolicited is only partially accurate.

The “Deliverables” of Proposals A deliverable is what a supplier will deliver at the end of a project. Deliverables can be classi!ed into two major categories: research or goods and services.

RESEARCH PROPOSALS In a research proposal, you are promising to perform research and then provide a report about it. For example, a biologist for a state bureau of land

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The “Deliverables” of Proposals 11 297

management writes a proposal to the National Science Foundation request- ing resources to build a window-lined tunnel in the forest to study tree and plant roots and the growth of fungi. The biologist also wishes to investigate the relationship between plant growth and the activity of insects and worms. The deliverable will be a report submitted to the National Science Foundation and, perhaps, an article published in a professional journal.

Research proposals often lead to two other applications: progress reports and recommendation reports.

After a proposal has been approved and the researchers have begun work, they often submit one or more progress reports, which tell the sponsor of the project how the work is proceeding. Is it following the plan of work outlined in the proposal? Is it going according to schedule? Is it staying within budget?

At the end of the project, researchers prepare a recommendation report, often called a !nal report, a project report, a completion report, or simply a report. A recommendation report tells the whole story of a research project, begin- ning with the problem or opportunity that motivated it and continuing with the methods used in carrying it out, the results, and the researchers’ conclu- sions and recommendations.

People carry out research projects to satisfy their curiosity and to advance professionally. Organizations often require that their professional employees carry out research and publish in appropriate journals or books. Government researchers and university professors, for instance, are expected to remain active in their !elds. Writing proposals is one way to get the resources—time and money for travel, equipment, and assistants—to carry out research.

GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS A goods and services proposal is an offer to supply a tangible product (a "eet of automobiles), a service (building maintenance), or some combination of the two (the construction of a building).

A vast network of goods and services contracts spans the working world. The U.S. government, the world’s biggest customer, spends more than $300 bil- lion per year buying military equipment from organizations that submit pro- posals (U.S. Department of Defense, 2015). But goods and services contracts are by no means limited to government contractors. An auto manufacturer might buy its engines from another manufacturer; a company that makes spark plugs might buy its steel and other raw materials from another company.

Another kind of goods and services proposal requests funding to support a local organization. For example, a women’s shelter might receive some of its funding from a city or county but might rely on grants from private philan- thropies. Typically, an organization such as a shelter would apply for a grant to fund increased demand for its services due to a natural disaster or an eco- nomic slowdown in the community. Or it might apply for a grant to fund a pilot program to offer job training at the shelter. Most large corporations have philanthropic programs offering grants to help local colleges and universi- ties, arts organizations, and social-service agencies.

For more about progress reports and recommendation reports, see Ch. 12, p. 324, and Ch. 13.

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The Structure of the Proposal 11 301

The Structure of the Proposal Proposal structures vary greatly from one organization to another. A long, complex proposal might have 10 or more sections, including introduction, problem, objectives, solution, methods and resources, and management. If the authorizing agency provides an IFB, an RFP, an RFQ, or a set of guidelines, follow it closely. If you have no guidelines, or if you are writing an unsolicited proposal, use the structure shown here as a starting point. Then modify it according to your subject, your purpose, and the needs of your audience. An example of a proposal is presented on pages 309–15.

SUMMARY For a proposal of more than a few pages, provide a summary. Many organiza- tions impose a length limit—such as 250 words—and ask the writer to pre- sent the summary, single-spaced, on the title page. The summary is crucial, because it might be the only item that readers study in their initial review of the proposal.

The summary covers the major elements of the proposal but devotes only a few sentences to each. De!ne the problem in a sentence or two. Next, describe the proposed program and provide a brief statement of your quali!- cations and experience. Some organizations wish to see the completion date and the !nal budget !gure in the summary; others prefer that this informa- tion be presented separately on the title page along with other identifying information about the supplier and the proposed project.

INTRODUCTION The purpose of the introduction is to help readers understand the context, scope, and organization of the proposal.

PROPOSED PROGRAM In the section on the proposed program, sometimes called the plan of work, explain what you want to do. Be speci!c. You won’t persuade anyone by say- ing that you plan to “gather the data and analyze it.” How will you gather and analyze the data? Justify your claims. Every word you say—or don’t say—will give your readers evidence on which to base their decision.

If your project concerns a subject written about in the professional litera- ture, show your familiarity with the scholarship by referring to the pertinent studies. However, don’t just string together a bunch of citations. For exam- ple, don’t write, “Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have all researched the relationship between global warming and groundwater con- tamination.” Rather, use the recent literature to sketch the necessary back- ground and provide the justi!cation for your proposed program. For instance:

Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have demonstrated the relationship between global warming and groundwater contamination. None of

For more about summaries, see Ch. 13, p. 355.

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WRITING PROPOSALS11 302

these studies, however, included an analysis of the long-term contamination of the aquifer. The current study will consist of . . . .

You might include only a few references to recent research. However, if your topic is complex, you might devote several paragraphs or even several pages to recent scholarship.

Whether your project calls for primary research, secondary research, or both, the proposal will be unpersuasive if you haven’t already done a sub- stantial amount of research. For instance, say you are writing a proposal to do research on purchasing new industrial-grade lawn mowers for your company. Simply stating that you will visit Wal-Mart, Lowe’s, and Home Depot to see what kinds of lawn mowers they carry would be unpersuasive for two reasons:

r� :PV�OFFE�UP�KVTUJGZ�XIZ�ZPV�BSF�HPJOH�UP�WJTJU�UIPTF�UISFF�SFUBJMFST�SBUIFS� than others. Anticipate your readers’ questions: Why did you choose these three retailers? Why didn’t you choose specialized dealers?

For more about researching a subject, see Ch. 5.

Introducing a Proposal The introduction to a proposal should answer the following seven questions:

What is the problem or opportunity? Describe the problem or opportunity in speci!c monetary terms, because the proposal itself will include a budget, and you want to convince your readers that spending money on what you propose is smart. Don’t say that a design problem is slowing down production; say that it is costing $4,500 a day in lost productivity.

What is the purpose of the proposal? The purpose of the proposal is to describe a solution to a problem or an approach to an opportunity and propose activities that will culminate in a deliverable. Be speci!c in explaining what you want to do.

What is the background of the problem or opportunity? Although you probably will not be telling your readers anything they don’t already know, show them that you understand the problem or opportunity: the circumstances that led to its discovery, the relationships or events that will a"ect the problem and its solution, and so on.

What are your sources of information? Review the relevant literature, ranging from internal reports and memos to published articles or even books, so that readers will understand the context of your work.

What is the scope of the proposal? If appropriate, indicate not only what you are proposing to do but also what you are not proposing to do.

What is the organization of the proposal? Explain the organizational pattern you will use.

What are the key terms that you will use in the proposal? If you will use any specialized or unusual terms, de!ne them in the introduction.

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To analyze a proposal delivered as a Prezi presentation, go to LaunchPad.

D O C U M E N T A N A LYS I S AC T I V I T Y

Marketing Proposal Presentation Used by permission of Andrew Washuta.

304 WRITING PROPOSALS11

r� :PV�TIPVME�BMSFBEZ�IBWF�EFUFSNJOFE�XIBU�TUPSFT�DBSSZ�XIBU�LJOET�PG� lawn mowers and completed any other preliminary research. If you haven’t done the homework, readers have no assurance that you will in fact do it or that it will pay off. If your supervisor authorizes the project and then you learn that none of the lawn mowers in these stores meets your organization’s needs, you will have to go back and submit a different proposal—an embarrassing move.

Unless you can show in your proposed program that you have done the research—and that the research indicates that the project is likely to succeed—the reader has no reason to authorize the project.

QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE After you have described how you would carry out the project, show that you can do it. The more elaborate the proposal, the more substantial the discussion of your quali!cations and experience has to be. For a small project, include a few paragraphs describing your technical credentials and those of your co-workers. For larger projects, include the résumés of the project leader, often called the principal investigator, and the other primary participants.

External proposals should also discuss the quali!cations of the sup- plier’s organization, describing similar projects the supplier has completed successfully. For example, a company bidding on a contract to build a large suspension bridge should describe other suspension bridges it has built. It should also focus on the equipment and facilities the company already has and on the management structure that will ensure the project will go smoothly.

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The Structure of the Proposal 11 305

BUDGET Good ideas aren’t good unless they’re affordable. The budget section of a pro- posal speci!es how much the proposed program will cost.

Budgets vary greatly in scope and format. For simple internal proposals, add the budget request to the statement of the proposed program: “This study will take me two days, at a cost of about $400” or “The variable-speed recorder currently costs $225, with a 10 percent discount on orders of !ve or more.” For more-complicated internal proposals and for all external propos- als, include a more-explicit and complete budget.

Many budgets are divided into two parts: direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include such expenses as salaries and fringe bene!ts of program personnel, travel costs, and costs of necessary equipment, materials, and supplies. Indirect costs cover expenses that are sometimes called overhead: general secretarial and clerical expenses not devoted exclusively to any one project, as well as operating expenses such as costs of utilities and mainte- nance. Indirect costs are usually expressed as a percentage—ranging from less than 20 percent to more than 100 percent—of the direct expenses.

APPENDIXES Many types of appendixes might accompany a proposal. Most organiza- tions have boilerplate descriptions of the organization and of the projects it has completed. Another item commonly included in an appendix is a sup- porting letter: a testimonial to the supplier’s skill and integrity, written by a reputable and well-known person in the !eld. Two other kinds of appendixes deserve special mention: the task schedule and the description of evaluation techniques.

Task Schedule A task schedule is almost always presented in one of three graphical formats: as a table, a bar chart, or a network diagram.

Tables The simplest but least informative way to present a schedule is in a table, as shown in Figure 11.3. As with all graphics, provide a textual reference that introduces and, if necessary, explains the table.

Task Schedule

Activity Start date Finish date

Design the security system 4 Oct. 15 19 Oct. 15

Research available systems 4 Oct. 15 3 Jan. 16

etc.

FIGURE 11.3 Task Schedule Presented as a Table

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