Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 1997, Vol. 28, No. 1. 87-91

Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0735-7028/97/J3.00

Graduate Student Professional Development

Kelly Ducheny Chicago School of Professional Psychology

Heidi L. Alletzhauser Mountain View, California

Deneen Crandell Colorado Department of Corrections, Canon City, Colorado

Tamera R. Schneider State University of New ork—Stony Brook

Professional development (PD) has become an integral element of professional practice and training within psychology and related fields, yet the construct has not been conceptually well defined. Psychology graduate students (N = 593) were surveyed to assess PD across 3 primary areas: "What is PD for you? Is this fostered by your program? and In which areas would you like more?" Students endorsed numerous items as being part of PD, with only 3 elements of PD fostered by graduate programs (statistics and research, theories of behavior, ethics). Multivariate analyses of variance revealed some differences between clinical/counseling and research/academic students on the factors across 2 of the primary areas. A conceptual definition of PD is offered, with recommendations for graduate students and educators to identify PD needs and evaluate whether those needs are being met.

Throughout the last decade, professional development (PD)

has become an integral element of professional practice and

training within psychology. PD has increasingly served as a

topic of book chapters (Devitt, 1988), articles (Miller, 1992;

Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992a), undergraduate and graduate

student classroom seminars, and professional workshops. It is

addressed within school mission statements and internship per-

KELLY DUCHENY received her PsyD in clinical psychology in 1993 from Wright State University, School of Professional Psychology. She is cur- rently the associate director of clinical training/core faculty at the Chi- cago School of Professional Psychology. Her areas of interest include gay and lesbian issues, professional issues, multidisciplinary collabora- tion, and multicultural interactions. HEIDI L. ALLETZHAUSER received her PsyD in 1992 from the School of Professional Psychology at Wright State University and is a psychologist in Mountain View, California. Her areas of interest include child survi- vors of homicide, domestic violence, and professional ethics. DENEEN CRANDELL received her PsyD in clinical psychology in 1993 from Wright State University, School of Professional Psychology. She is currently employed as a staff psychologist at the Colorado Women's Correctional Facility in Canon City, Colorado, with interests in the treat- ment of perpetrators of domestic violence and sexual offenses and in professional development. TAMERA R. SCHNEIDER received an MA in applied behavioral science at Wright State University in 1992 and is currently pursuing her PhD in health psychology at State University of New Y>rk—Stony Brook. Her research interests include the intersection of stress and health, with an emphasis on cardiovascular disease. THIS RESEARCH WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE without the encourage- ment and financial support of the American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS). We are particularly appreciative of the assistance of Todd Mook (APA staff), the APAGS Executive Board, and the APA Office of Demographic Employment and Educational Research. CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS .ARTICLE should be addressed to Kelly Ducheny, Chicago School of Professional Psychology, 47 West Polk, Chicago, Illinois 60605.

formance ratings (Ross & Altmaier, 1990), even inspiring spe-

cific committees at the national level (American Psychological

Association of Graduate Students, 1990). PD has become iden-

tified with the process of maturing and evolving as a professional

in the field of psychology.

Within the literature, several related concepts and terms are

being used to describe professional growth and development.

These terms include professional identity (McGowen & Hart,

1990), professional socialization (Green, 1991), postgraduate

development (Fogel & Click, 1991), developmental stages (Lo-

pez et al., 1989), professionalism (Oakland, 1986), and profes-

sional development (Ross & Altmaier, 1990; Skovholt & Ron-

nestad, 1992a). Although PD is widely discussed and promoted,

there is little clarity about exactly what PD is and how it is

achieved or enhanced.

Although widely heralded as a critical component of profes-

sional evolution and training, few sources have attempted to

conceptually define PD. Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a,

1992b) conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of PD

to date but did not offer a concrete definition of the term. In

the context of education for professional psychologists, issues

of PD and standards of training have been addressed by the

National Council of Schools of Professional Psychology

(NCSPP). In a draft of their "Standards for Education on Pro-

fessional Psychology,'' the NCSPP (Callan, Peterson, & Strieker,

1986) addresses the importance of issues such as professional

socialization without attempting to further define professional

socialization or PD. Although no two sources describe PD iden-

tically, three primary elements are frequently discussed as con-

tributing to or being synonymous with PD: (a) the importance

of continuing training and familiarity with relevant research;

( b ) the influence of a supportive peer group or mentor; and (c)

the organization of PD into stages articulated by formative

events or level of training.

The first element, continuing education, is the most commonly

87

DUCHENY, ALLETZHAUSER, CRANDELL, AND SCHNEIDER

mentioned component of PD. Ross and Altmaier (1990) de-

scribed PD as an intern's ability to identify and pursue his or

her own training needs, as well as an appropriate receptivity to

supervisory feedback. In addition, attendance at professional

meetings, training sessions, and efforts to remain abreast of

relevant technical research and literature have been recom-

mended for the enhancement of PD (Devitt, 1988; McCully,

1962).

A second element common to the PD literature is access

to mentoring and supportive peer relationships. Mentoring is

suggested to serve a critical role in an individual's PD (Skov-

holt & Ronnestad, 1992a; Wright & Wright, 1987), as well as

the development of the profession as a whole (Miller, 1992).

Kreiser, Domokos-Cheng Ham, Wiggers, and Feldstein (1991)

explored the contribution to PD made by an established "profes-

sional family."

The third element commonly found in the literature is the

progression of PD through a series of stages marked by signifi-

cant formative events or task-level completion (i.e., graduation,

first job, career advancement). Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a,

1992b) developed an eight-stage model of PD for psychothera-

pists, with stages denoted by an individual's advancement within

graduate training and the number of years a therapist has prac-

ticed after achieving a graduate degree. In other research, the

postdoctoral "phase" of PD has been divided into three distinct

stages, with each stage characterized by cumulative tasks and

professional responsibilities (Kaslow, McCarthy, Rogers, &

Summerville, 1992).

Additionally, a few authors offer some components of PD

that are intrapersonal in nature. Miller (1992) has suggested

that self-understanding of one's values, areas of interest, and

professional and personal needs is an essential component of

PD. In describing the PD of clinical psychology interns, Ross

and Altmaier (1990) have included a willingness to address

one's own issues and an independent conception of projects and

professional goals. In greater depth, Watts (1987) has viewed

PD as a combination of one's theoretical paradigm, career goals,

and an individual's principles and personal standards, whereas

Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992a) have suggested that "continu-

ous professional reflection" was the most influential method of

PD among their sample of clinicians. To this point, PD has

been advanced by the growth and exploration of its individual

components, without an integrated definition of the concept as

a whole (Fox, Barclay, & Rodgers, 1982).

This survey was initially conceptualized as a project for the

American Psychological Association of Graduate Students

(APAGS). A graduate student sample was chosen to begin re-

searching PD at the initial point of introduction to the field of

psychology and to include a population rarely studied.

The Study

Twenty-four survey items were generated through a review

of the literature that included sources mentioning professional

development or addressing graduate student training needs or

development. For each of the 24 items, participants were asked

to address three primary questions: (a) Is this part of profes-

sional development for you? (b) Is this fostered by your pro-

gram? and (c) Do you want more? Participants responded on

a 3-point scale (yes, no, or somewhat). Surveys were mailed

to 1,100 psychology graduate students across the United States

and Canada. The sample was stratified across training subspeci-

alty to reflect the current percentages of the APAGS subspecialty

membership. All students were members of APAGS. Of the

original 1,100 surveys, 604 were returned ( 5 5 % ) , with 593

surveys suitable for inclusion. Subspecialty stratification of the

sample remained within the surveys suitable for inclusion.

Students endorsed approximately two thirds of the items when

asked, "Is this part of PD for you?" However, only three items

were identified as being fostered by graduate psychology pro-

grams: familiarity with more than one theory of behavior, profi-

ciency in research and statistics, and a foundation in ethical

principles and dilemmas. These three items represent some of

the basic knowledge, skills, and attitudes within psychology,

and they fail to reflect the richness of a graduate student's

professional identity or the multidimensional sources of PD.

These elements represent the bare minimum of training a student

in psychology should receive. It appears that graduate psychol-

ogy programs have uniformly fostered only the most traditional

elements of PD.

In addition, students felt that three areas were specifically not

being fostered by their programs: development of time manage-

ment skills, development of funding proposal and grant writing

skills, and awareness of professional stages of development and

associated pitfalls. Psychology graduate students requested more

within these areas: development of supervisory and mentoring

skills, ability to function in diverse professional capacities,

awareness of professional stages of development and associated

pitfalls, involvement in a mentoring relationship, development

of special areas of interest or proficiency, and encouragement

of positive multidisciplinary relationships. These areas showcase

a strong orientation toward the future, a curiosity concerning

the process of PD itself, an interest in achieving PD through

professional relationships, and an awareness of the changing

nature of the field of psychology (see Table 1).

A factor analysis was computed to examine common variance

among the 24 items and across the three primary questions. Two

factors were found for the first primary question, "Is this part of

professional development for you?'' The first factor was labeled

Interpersonal and Multirole Effectiveness (1ME) and included

supervisory-mentoring skills, awareness of PD stages and pit-

falls, functioning in diverse capacities, multidisciplinary rela-

tions, and awareness of sex and gender issues. The second factor

addressed issues related to research and academic proficiency

and included college-level teaching skills, specialized experi-

mental techniques, presenting and publishing, and funding and

grant proposal writing skills. This factor was labeled Academia

and Research ( A R ) . Two factors were found for the third pri-

mary question, "Do you want more?" The first factor, labeled

Ethical and Societal Principles (ESP), included influence of

public policy and legal issues on psychology, incorporating soci-

ety's needs, awareness of sex and gender issues, ethical issues,

and continuing education. The second factor, entitled Scientific

Advancement ( S A ) , included proficiency in research and statis-

tics, specialized experimental techniques, and presenting and

publishing (see Table 2).

A multivariatE analysis of variance (MANOft) was per-

formed on the four factors. Survey respondents were placed into

GRADUATE STUDENT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 89

Table 1

Mean Item Scores on the Professional Development

<PD) Questionnaire (N = 593)

Part of Fostered PD for by your Want you? program? more?

Item

Development of special areas Mentoring relationship Skills in quality assurance Multicultural issues More than one theory of behavior

Research and statistics College-level teaching skills Experimental skills Presentation skills Access to personal therapy Facilitation of peer relations Informal interaction with faculty Time management Proposal and grant writing skills Awareness of PD stages Supervisory/mentoring skills Incorporating society's needs

Participation in psychology org. Multidisciplinary relations Sex and gender issues Diverse professional capacities Continuing education Public policy/legal issues Foundation in ethics

M

1.83 1.57 1.29 1.56 1.90 1.67

1.19 0.91 1.58 .27

.63

.34

.20

.15 1.46

1.59 1.67

1.62 1.65

1.72 1.75 1.75 1.66 1.85

SD

.44

.73

.82

.68

.38

.61

.89

.86

.69

.91

.67

.80

.89

.89

.77

.74

.62

.63

.66

.57

.57

.56

.60

.42

M

1.30 0.96 0.80 1.20 1.69 1.69

0.73 0.84

1.18 0.66 1.12 0.89

0.36 0.39 0.49 0.73 0.98

1.23 0.84

1.17 1.02 1.24 1.06 1.61

SD M

.70

.81

.79

.76

.57

.53

.78

.79

.77

.83

.77

.78

.62

.64

.68

.78

.75

.75

.77

.76

.76

.77

.75

.62

.50

.51

.34

.35

.13 ).85 .24

).78 .37 .07 .34 .17

J.93 .43 .54 .61 .49 .09 .50 .37 .56 .35 .43 .28

sn

.76

.80

.82

.85

.91

.89

.89

.83

.82

.92

.83

.86

.90

.81

.72

.69

.75

.85

.73

.83

.71

.81

.76

.85

one of two groups on the basis of their subspecialty, with the

grouping variable being whether students were in a program

that emphasized psychotherapy training. Clinical and counseling

students' responses were grouped together (n = 394; clinical-

counseling) and compared with the remaining subspecialties,

including cognitive, developmental, experimental, general,

health, industrial-organizational, school, social, and other (« =

138; research-academia).

Using the Wilks's lambda criterion, the combination of the

dependent variables (the four factors) was significantly effected

by participants' group (clinical-counseling or research-acade-

mia), F(4, 527) = 21.95, p < .0001. An examination of the

univariate statistics revealed that IME was effected by group,

F( I, 530) = 39.95, p < .0001, as clinical-counseling students

reported that IME was part of PD for them more than did

research-academia students. AR was also effected by group,

F(l, 530) = 14.88, p < .0001. Research-academia students

reported that AR was part of PD for them more than did clini-

cal-counseling students. Last, SA was effected by group, F(,

530) = 9.17, p < .01. Research—academia students reported

that they would like more instruction in research oriented skills

than did clinical-counseling students. ESP was not responded

to differently by clinical-counseling students (M = 7.05, SD

= 2.72) or research-academia students (M = 6.61, SD = 2.93).

The combination of the dependent variables was not signifi-

cantly effected by the gender of the participants.

The complexity of PD as a concept and the differing emphasis

of particular elements of PD across subspecialties are reinforced

by the factor analysis and the MANOft results. Clinical-coun-

seling students and research—academic students showed the ex-

pected differences and similarities in their responses, with clini-

cal-counseling students more invested in relationship factors

(IME) and research-academic students more interested in pur-

suing activities related to academic training and research (AR,

SA). Clinical-counseling students and research-academia stu-

dents responded similarly with regard to the Ethical and Societal

Principles (ESP) factor. It appears that suhspecialty field of

training influences both the means through which PD is achieved

and the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are

incorporated.

Study results may be limited by the inclusion of only APAGS

members and by the high percentage of clinical-counseling

participants. Additional research is recommended to examine

how program type (i.e., PhD, PsyD, EdD, MA), subspecialty,

and individual student characteristics (i.e., nontraditional, ethnic

diversity, age) affect PD and the methods through which it is

achieved.

The variety and frequency of items endorsed as part of PD

suggest that for graduate students in psychology, PD is not

simply a uniform set of experiences or skills. Instead, PD is a

complex process incorporating personal and professional expe-

riences, profession-based and individual values, skills and areas

of expertise, educational background, and the establishment of

professional relationships. In the tradition of bootstrap validity

(Meehl, 1973), we offer a definition of PD for psychology based

on a critical review of the literature and analysis of survey

results: Professional development is an ongoing process through

which an individual derives a cohesive sense of professional

identity by integrating the broad-based knowledge, skills, and

attitudes within psychology with one's values and interests.

Beginning with an introduction to the field and continuing

throughout the professional life span, PD is fostered by tradi-

tional academic experiences, mentoring, peer relations, intro-

spection, training, and supervision. The methods through which

PD is achieved vary across individual and situation, and are not

solely based within the three components of PD articulated in

the literature. No one method of achieving PD may be used in

exclusion of all others, as PD requires multidimensional growth

and the integration of awareness, knowledge, and skills from

various sources.

Professional identity is the organizing mechanism for PD.

At any given point in a psychologist's career, be it declaring

psychology as one's undergraduate major or gaining tenure as a

professor of psychology, there exists some sense of professional

identity. This identity is a unique synthesis of an individual's

values and interests with the professional knowledge, skills, and

attitudes acquired throughout one's training and career. Ideally,

across time, an individual moves through a series of experiences

that require redefinition of the professional identity, thus

avoiding stagnation and increasing professional competence.

Both the mastering of the profession's knowledge, skills, and

attitudes, and the integration of personal beliefs are necessary

for PD. By engaging one's personal values and interests, a

unique professional identity is formed.

Specific manifestations of PD are not included in this defini-

tion; instead, this definition offers a basic framework around

which these elements can be placed. The definition is adaptable

90 DUCHENY, ALLETZHAUSER, CRANDELL, AND SCHNEIDER

Table 2

Results of the Factor Analysis of the Professional Development Questionnaire

Question Factor/items

Is this part of professional development for you?

Would you like more?

Interpersonal and Multirole Effectiveness (Cronbach's a = .78) 1. Awareness of professional stages of development and associated pitfalls 2. Development of supervisory and mentoring skills 3. Awareness of the importance of incorporating society's needs into the science and practice of psychology 4. Encouragement of positive multidisciplinary relations 5. Awareness of sex and gender issues 6. Ability to function in diverse professional capacities 7. Commitment to receiving continuing education

Academia and Research (Cronbach's a = .70)

1. Skill in acquisition in teaching college-level psychology 2. Skill development in specialized experimental techniques 3. Skills in presenting/publishing student research, papers, and clinical samples 4. Development of funding proposal and grant writing skills

Ethical and Societal Principles (Cronbach's a = .73) 1. Awareness of the importance of incorporating society's needs into the science and practice of psychology 2. Awareness of sex and gender issues 3. Commitment to receiving continuing education 4. Concern regarding public policy or legal issues influencing psychology

5. Foundation in ethical principles and dilemmas Scientific Advancement (Cronbach's a = .80)

1. Proficiency in research and statistics 2. Skill development in specialized experimental techniques 3. Skills in presenting/publishing student research, papers, and clinical samples

and process-oriented. It directly addresses the impact of an indi-

vidual's values and interests and moves beyond the three basic

elements of PD within the literature. PD is portrayed in this

definition as an ongoing process rather than a discrete set of

experiences or achievements. The stage theory of PD (Skov-

holt & Ronnestad, 1992a) connects a particular level or theme

of PD to an individual's place in training and years of experience

within the field. This stage model is restrictive and overly sim-

plistic, and it fails to adequately address the variability across

individuals and the fluidity of growth and development. The

foregoing definition, however, retains the conception of PD as

a lifelong process without designating particular issues to be

dealt with at a particular professional "age." Although there

are likely different PD needs at different stages, some of which

may proceed in a loosely sequential manner, PD is an individual-

ized, lifelong endeavor.

Implications and Applications for Graduate Students

Articulating your professional identity. A sense of empow-

erment and an appreciation for the multidimensional nature of

growth and advancement are critical to the articulation of your

PD needs. It is important to understand that you have entered

into a training program with a unique professional identity that is composed of previous experiences within the field of psychol-

ogy and a mixture of your interests and personal values. It is a

personal responsibility to actively identify your PD needs and

to advocate for resources to achieve your PD goals.

To begin, spend some concentrated time exploring how you

define yourself and clarifying what your current PD needs may

be. This reflection could include topics of special interest, per- sonal and professional values and commitments, preferred the-

ory of behavior change, and contributions you wish to make to

the field. For example, if you find spirituality to be a guiding

factor in your life, consider how this aspect of yourself will be

woven into your professional identity. After you have begun to

articulate your unique PD needs, you can identify whether those

needs are currently being met.

Evaluating whether your needs are being met. After articu- lating PD needs, it is necessary to clarify whether those needs

are being satisfied. Carefully examine the "environment" of

your graduate program. Looking beyond surface elements, ex-

plore professional models and mentors, applied experiences

available, coursework offered, opportunities for collaboration,

emphasis on introspection and use of self, and the values and

"culture" of your program. Articulate which of these resources

are being used and which resources could be engaged to better

meet your PD needs. After exploring which resources are avail-

able, advocate for additional resources or develop a plan for

obtaining those experiences outside of your formal training

program.

Monitoring your PD needs. Periodically evaluate how you

are progressing toward the achievement of your PD goals. As

you evaluate a current set of PD goals, you may learn that a

different method of achieving those goals might be more effec-

tive. In addition, you may recognize that within the process of

working toward a set of articulated PD goals, your PD plan has actually evolved and changed. A regular pattern of setting,

evaluating, and revising PD goals lays a strong foundation of

commitment to PD issues and growth, and it communicates that

the completion of graduate training is only the beginning of a

lifelong process of PD (Kreiser et al., 1991).

Implications and Applications for Graduate Educators

Psychology graduate programs are lacking a systematic method of addressing the PD needs of their students. As an

GRADUATE STUDENT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 91

educator; your responsibility is twofold: to lay the foundation

for a student's commitment to lifelong PD and to meet that

student's immediate PD needs while engaged in graduate study.

%ur commitment to meeting the PD needs of your students

can be expressed in numerous ways, depending on the size and

training model of your program. Review the degree requirements

and training goals of your program and assess whether it system-

atically fosters a sense of professional identity within your stu-

dent body. Articulate self-examination of PD as a priority and

develop specific opportunities to explore PD or incorporate PD

issues as a recurrent theme throughout your program's curricu-

lum. Encourage graduate students to explore their personal inter-

ests and values in relation to psychology's broad-based knowl-

edge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, challenge yourself to

foster less traditional elements of PD, to assist students in locat-

ing PD resources not available within your training program,

and to reinforce the concept of PD as a lifelong process of

growth and professional evolution.

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