The basic underlying purpose of storm water management is to keep people from the water, to keep the water from the people and to protect or enhance the environment while doing so. Keeping people from the water involves a wide-ranging number of nonstructural damage mitigation measures, (e.g., zoning, floodplain management, flood proofing). Keeping the water from people involves direct interference with the water by usingflow reduction measures, such as retention or detention storage facilities or channel enlargement. The rationale for this study is to examinepast and current construction practices at The University of North Carolina at Pembroke and their relationship withsignificant inclement weather events every increasing annually. The study will also examine best practices as it pertains to ongoing maintenance needs of storm water infrastructure in order to keep it in proper working order. As the frequency of storm events increase and damage costs continually rise,it’s paramount that we identify innovative storm infrastructure solutions in order to be more effective in not only management practices but mitigation efforts for our growing urban population. Relationship between storm water infrastructure and the condition of the infrastructurewill be determined. Based on the finding, the best practices will be identified that can help minimize loss of property and just as important, reduce the impact to the environment.

In its most simple terms, storm water is the water that runs off impervious (i.e., water resistant) surfaces such as roofs, roads, driveways and footpaths. In built-upareas, runoff goes down drains into storm water pipes or channels and is carried to rivers, lakes and eventually the sea. Storm water runoff causes a number of environmental problems. This water often carries debris, chemicals, bacteria, eroded soil, and other pollutants, and carries them into streams, rivers, lakes, or wetlands.When stormwateris absorbed into the soil, it is filtered and ultimately replenishes aquifers or flows into streams and rivers. However, when heavy rainwater hits, ground saturated by water creates excess moisture that runs across the surface and into storm sewers and road ditches.

In developed areas, impervious surfaces such as pavement, sidewalks and roofs prevent precipitation from naturally soaking into the ground. Instead, water runs rapidly into storm drains, sewer systems and drainage ditches and causes flooding, erosion, turbidity, storm and sanitary sewer system overflow, and infrastructure damage. In addition to visual surface damage the storm infrastructure will also incur damage when it is under sized. Water will deteriorate the interior of the structures. Pipe joints are compromised as well as catch basins and inlet boxes. This occurs when dated equipment that was constructed with less desirable means such as methods and materials that are not suited for large events. With the deterioration of storm water infrastructure, other adjacent systems are negatively impacted such as roadways, curbing, sidewalks and facility roof drain leaders. Another common occurrence associated with these issues are that other infrastructure such as underground utility systems such as primary electric, potable water, natural gas, sewage infrastructure and IT infrastructure are washed out and left with little to no physical support and left exposed to damage. Such risks compromisethe integrity of the equipment and also jeopardizes personal safety.

This research project will advocate needed improvementsat The University of North Carolina at Pembroke that would keep with strict adherence to design guidelines, applicable building codes as well as innovative design solutions that are environmentally friendly as well as protect the well-being of the campus community.This research will promote different approaches to storm water management and mitigation strategies that focuses not only on traditional methods but green methods as well. The UNC-Pembroke campus has countless moving parts that are required to educate our student body and while each function is a critical component to the student’s success, unfortunately, storm water infrastructure is often overlooked. While advances in technology, new programs, new facilities to house those programs and overarching focus on growth are in the forefront of UNCP’s campus, the basic need to keep the student body safe from inclement weather events goes unnoticed. Student life is easily impacted by such events, including the on-line student community. With all student services at risk of being offline during inclement weather the impacts are detriment to our campus community. With services offline, there’s countless needs that are not met and every student, faculty member and staff member are negatively affected. Such environments are not conducive to our student’s intellectual success and overall wellbeing and how can we as educators expect our student body to go out and make the world a better place when they are worried about their own personal safety.

The University of North Carolina at Pembroke must adopt a storm water management as well as a mitigation plan that is applicable to a Higher Ed institutionthrough the use of constructed or natural practices to reduce, temporarily detain, slow down,and decreasethe negative impacts of stormwater runoffto its population, facilities, general property as well as the surrounding environment.Detaining stormwater, intentionally directing travel paths and removing pollutants is the primary purpose of stormwater management. Pervious Surfaces that are porous and allow rainfall and snowmelt to soak into the soil, Gray infrastructure, such as culverts, gutters, storm sewers, conventional piped drainage, and Blue/Green infrastructure that protect, restore, or mimic the natural water cycle, all play a part in stormwater management.

UNCP cannot solely rely on traditional storm water management methods but instead examine current risks, seek innovative solutions and be willing to implement those solutions that are most advantageous for the campus community.In order to create a more robust storm water management infrastructure UNCP will have to investigate other avenues such asImplementing stormwater design and “Green Infrastructure”to capture and reuse stormwater to maintain or restore natural hydrology is paramount to be successful in managing and mitigating storm water runoff. The retrofitting of existing infrastructure is more difficult and more expensive than planning for storm water management in new construction. Storm water design in new construction must be approached in a manner that protects both people, property and the environment. One aspect of Green Infrastructure is the harvesting approach. Often referred to as Rainwater Harvesting, it allows water to be captured and repurposed in a number of ways. One of the oldest of traditions would be simply capturing the rainfall and storing in a large structure for fresh water supply, irrigation purposes and even grey water supply. Harvesting rainfall would certainly work in a campus setting and in particular at UNC-Pembroke. Our facility footprint would allow above ground tanks to be placed in discrete locations that would not negatively impact the architecture of the facility or surrounding area.

In order for UNC-Pembroke’s Facility Management Department to obtain the needed buy-in to the rainwater harvesting approachit will require educating the campus community onrainwater harvesting methods and its benefits as well as inviting participation from students, faculty and staff in the design and installation process. Seeking support through engagement and providing opportunities for ownership is the key to achieving a successful campus rainwater harvesting program.

The goal of this research project is to promote a heighten awareness of negative impacts to the property of The University of North Carolina at Pembrokecollege campus due to existing inadequate storm water infrastructure.

As a step towards achieving this goal,the following objectives are undertaken:

1. Use literature review to understand current storm water management practices.

2. Collect and analyze data to identify any gaps that may exist in traditional management and mitigation means and methods.

3. Provide recommendations for management strategies that would address immediate needs with the existing storm water infrastructure as well as mitigation strategies that enhance the student experience by way of environmentally friendly solutions.

How do we keep the UNCP campus community and the flow of storm water through campus separated in a manner that allows both to coexist in close quarters and provide a conducive environment for both?In order to answer the research question asked earlier, this document will examine the industry standards concerning storm infrastructure installation, ongoing maintenance needs and the governing bodies that enforce applicable codes. Through review of comprehensive literature reviews, engineering design guidelines, construction guidelines and applicable codes and ongoing maintenance requirements that help ensure proper operation of storm infrastructure this research will provide specifics on what’s required to construct and maintain an effective infrastructure system. Data collection will also consist of actual field inspections that will include existing infrastructure conditions on a college campus that has areas that are prone to flooding and areas that are not. and photos of that infrastructure will be part of this document. Site visits will be made to new construction sites such as our new School of Business and the newly renovated West Hall facility.Interviews will be conducted with designers, engineers, general contractors and subcontractors with specific questions that cover the complete process involving conceptual drawings to final installations. The area in which these on-site investigations will take place is purposeful as the area in question was significantly impacted by Hurricane Matthew in 2016 and Hurricane Florence in 2018 in which Robeson County received national publicity. These site visits will help validate literary reviews and support the growing concern for the need for storm water management. Another aspect of this research will involve mitigation. Again, as with the storm water management review, a comprehensive literature reviews, engineering design guidelines, construction guidelines and applicable codes and ongoing maintenance requirements that help ensure proper operation of storm infrastructure this research will provide specifics on what’s required to construct and maintain an effective infrastructure system as it involves mitigation itself. This topic will be handled nearly identical as the management piece but will provide insight to new and innovative system installations that not only mitigate storm water damage but turn storm water run-off from a negative impact to a positive contribution to the environment.

Chapter 2Literature Review

In the United States, population is growing and the majority of the population of the United States now lives in suburban and urban areas. Because the area appropriated for urban land uses is growing faster, these patterns of growth guarantee that the influences of urban land uses will continue to expand over time. Cities and Suburbia obviously provide the homes and livelihood for most of the nation’s population. Urbanization of the landscape profoundly affects how water moves both above and below ground during the following storm events; the quality of that storm water and the ultimate condition of nearby rivers, lakes and estuaries. The influence on humans on the physical and biological systems of the Earth’s surface is not a recent manifestation of modern societies; instead, it is ubiquitous throughout our history. As human populations have grown, so has their footprint, such that between 30 and 50 percent of the Earth’s surface has been transformed (Vitousek, 1997). Urbanization causes extensive changes to the land surface beyond its immediate borders, particularly in ostensibly rural regions, through alterations by agriculture and forestry that support the urban population (Lambin, 2001).

Within the immediate boundaries of cities and suburbs, the changes to natural conditions and processes wrought by urbanization are among the most radical of any human activity. The two major causes of flooding are heavy-volume rainfall and rapidly melting snow that can also be mixed with rainfall. Since rainfall and snowmelt cannot be controlled, designs and operation of transport and storage system must be done to minimize flooding. About 7% of the land in the United States (almost the size of Texas) is in the floodplain. Floodplains are low areas adjacent to streams, lakes and oceans that are subject to flooding once every 100 years. A 100-year flood is one likely to be equaled or exceeded on the average only once every 100 years. This statement is meaningful only over long periods of time (e.g., centuries). It is possible that the “big” floods will occur at shorter durations. Failures of upstream controls (e.g., dams, ponds,.) also cause flooding.

Stormwater management is no longer a concern solely of large municipalities and quickly growing counties. Federal mandates to clean runoff are being implemented across the United States, and most developed countries have stormwater requirements. Bills such as the Energy Security and Independence Act of 2008, for example, requires all federal facilities at least 5000 ft2 in surface area to mitigate stormwater runoff using non‐traditional techniques. The evolution of storm water practice in the United States is set against the backdrop of social change. Since the 1800’s, the basic thrust in the United States has shifted from exploration, to cultivation, industrialization, urbanization, and gentrification. Gentrification is when we not only want a safe and efficient neighborhood, but a “green” one with walking paths and natural areas (Reese, 2003).

Building codes and local government ordinances vary greatly on the handling of storm drain runoff. New developments might be required to construct their own storm drain processing capacity for returning the runoff to the water table and bio-swales may be required in sensitive ecological areas to protect the watershed.In the United States, cities, suburban communities and towns with over 10,000 populations are required to obtain discharge permits for their storm sewer systems, under the Clean Water Act CWA 1987). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued stormwater regulations for large cities in 1990 and for other communities in 1999 (EPA 1999). The permits require local governments to operate stormwater management programs, covering both construction of new buildings and facilities, and maintenance of their existing municipal drainage networks. Many municipalities have revised their local ordinances covering management of runoff. State government facilities, such as roads and highways, are also subject to the stormwater management regulations (Woelkers 2002). Many local municipalities have commercial and residential stormwater management ordinances that require builders to design and implement an approved system.

Modern drainage systems, which collect runoff from impervious surfaces (e.g., roofs and roads), ensure that water is efficiently conveyed to waterways through pipe networks, meaning that even small storm events result in increased waterway flows.Drainage systems can prevent water accumulation that can lead to flooding by directing the water away from a facility. Drainage systems also prevent the accumulation of stagnant water, which can encourage mosquitoes to breed.Over time, stagnant water accumulated can make soil muddy, which in turn can cause soil to erode. Storm drains in streets and parking areas must be strong enough to support the weight of vehicles, and are often made of cast iron or reinforced concrete. Pipes can come in many different cross-sectional shapes (rectangular, square, bread-loaf-shaped, oval, inverted pear-shaped, egg shaped, and most commonly, circular).Drainage systems may have many different features including waterfalls, stairways, balconies and pits for catching rubbish, sometimes called Gross Pollutant Traps (GPTs). Pipes made of different materials can also be used, such as brick, concrete, high-density polyethylene or galvanized steel. Fiber reinforced plastic is being used more commonly for drainpipes and fittings.

Continuous, heavy rains may cause the water to rise, which can lead to flash floods, especially when you live near a big body of water. Often these flash floods bring contaminated water into your soil. Drainage systems can remove these toxic materials by draining them away from property.A storm drain's primary purpose is to give the rainwater a place to go as opposed to collecting in the streets and, potentially, flooding above ground structure. By removing the run-off water, the storm drains take it off the road, making it safer to travel on. Storm drains also help reduce the amount of ice on the roads by giving run-off water a place to go during mid-winter thaws.The University of North Carolina at Pembroke is set against the backdrop of typical urbanization in that it’s made up of large structure footprints, roadways, sidewalks and developed landscapes associated with a Higher Ed. environment. Beneath these impervious structures and various hardscapes there is a network of storm water infrastructure that is designed to move storm water away from the campus assets but more importantly, the campus community.

Traditional storm drains offer a way for rainwater to escape from grade level surfaces, they are primitive metal grates in the street. Debris from the run-off water can easily clog storm drains and render them useless. Unless there is someone out there constantly cleaning off the storm drain grate during a storm, the grate may reach the point where it is not a help but rather a cause of water buildup. Regular maintenance of a drainage system is critical to its success and will ensure that it functions properly at all times. Outlet ditches of your subsurface systems should be free from blockages caused by sediment buildup. Routine visual inspections should be conducted to ensure that debris does not seal the inlet covers. If a tile of your drainage system breaks, it will have to replaced. Removing water-loving trees, such as willows, elm, soft maple and cottonwood, from within 100 feet of the drain will keep your drain from blockages caused by overgrown roots, fallen leaves and branches coming from these trees. Continued maintenance is necessary to keep a system operating properly but can be very time consuming and labor can easily be directed to other tasks while potential issues can be realized too late.

There are two main types of stormwater drain inlets: side inlets and grated inlets. Side inlets are located adjacent to the curb and rely on the ability of the opening under the back stone or lintel to capture flow. They are usually depressed at the invert of the channel to improve capture capacity. Many inlets have gratings or grids to prevent people, vehicles, large objects or debris from falling into the storm drain. Grate bars are spaced so that the flow of water is not impeded, but sediment and many small objects can also fall through. However, if grate bars are too far apart, the openings may present a risk to pedestrians, bicyclists, and others in the vicinity. Grates with long narrow slots parallel to traffic flow are of particular concern to cyclists, as the front tire of a bicycle may become stuck, causing the cyclist to go over the handlebars or lose control and fall. Drainage systems can also contribute to contamination problems, especially when not properly maintained. Subsurface drainage systems can carry nitrate through drain pipes, channeling it directly into the bodies of water such as streams, rivers and lakes. Conventional storm water drainage has been identified as a primary driver of the commonly observed, severe degradation of stream ecosystems in urban catchments (Brown, Li 2009). Such systems send polluted storm water to receiving waters every time there is sufficient ran to generate runoff from impervious surfaces, greatly increasing the frequency of hydraulic and water quality disturbances to streams (Walsh 2009). The large changes to the volume and pattern of flow caused by urban storm water drainage systems point to urban stream degradation being, in large part, a hydrologic problem. The University of North Carolina at Pembroke campus exhibits typical disadvantages to traditional storm water infrastructure in that it has dated, undersized and some cases dilapidated storm infrastructure. Many portions of the system cannot handle the volume of water that’s produced during summertime afternoon showers that produce a high volume of water in a short period of time. Unfortunately, it is common for urban settings such as a college campus to experience growth with regards to new facilities, new technology, utility infrastructure that provides energy to facilities, additional hardscape but little to no improvements to the storm infrastructure. Such settings increase risks to the campus community and its wellbeing.

There are pros and cons associated with the traditional storm management methods. While storm water infrastructure is an effective method to keep water away from people and people away from water, there are innovative solutions such as harvesting, detention and retention structures that could possible help reduce the volume of water that flows through the existing storm infrastructure and actually engage people from a sustainable perspective. One of the more popular methods that’s also sustainable is rain water harvesting. Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water. Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rain water, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit, aquifer or a reservoir. Harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater recharge.The construction and use of cisterns to store rainwater can be traced back to the Neolithic Age, when waterproof lime plaster cisterns were built in the floors of houses in village locations of the Levant, a large area in Southwest Asia, south of the Taurus Mountains, bound by the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the Arabian Desertin the south, and Mesopotamia in the east. By the late 4000 BC, cisterns were essential elements of emerging water management techniques used in dry-land farming (Mays, Antoniou, Angelakis 2013). 

There are several advantages of the rainwater harvesting approach. It can be used as an independent water supply, supplemental during drought and a life-cycle assessment can be performed on this approach. Rainwater harvesting provides the independent water supply during regional water restrictions, and in developed countries, it is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water when a drought occurs, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained. It also helps in the availability of potable water, as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts. Applications of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water supply and wastewater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water supply subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution systems, less generated stormwater in sewer systems (Behzadian 2015).

Rainwater harvesting has several approaches. One approach is called the Rain Saucer. Instead of using the roof for catchment, the RainSaucer, which looks like an upside-down umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for contamination and makes RainSaucer a potential application for potable water in developing countries (Kim 2011). Other applications of this free-standing rainwater collection approach are sustainable gardening and small-plot farming (Kumar 2012). A very popular method is the use of large above ground tanks. These tanks can vary in size and capture rain water through a series of raceways from the roofs of structures. Water could be sheet surface water or infrastructure that is connected directly to roof drains or gutters.Another popular, yet more traditional design is detention or retention ponds. These ponds hold rainwater runoff temporarily and restrict outflow. By doing this it reduces the risk of overburdening the storm system and this too is a form of rainwater harvesting.

One of the more recent designs utilize special solar panels. Good quality water resource, closer to populated areas, is becoming scarce and costly for the consumers. In addition to solar and wind energy, rainwater is major renewable resource of any land. The vast area is being covered by solar PV panels every year in all parts of the world. Solar panels can also be used for harvesting most of the rainwater falling on them and drinking quality water, free from bacteria and suspended matter, can be generated by simple filtration and disinfection processes as rainwater is very low in salinity (Dvorak, Hanley 2017). Exploitation of rainwater for value-added products like bottled drinking water, makes solar PV power plants profitable even in high rainfall/ cloudy areas by the augmented income from value-added drinking water generation.One viable approach to this issue could be to utilize rainwater harvesting approaches to intercept the water and managing the volume of water that is allowed to enter the storm infrastructure. There are a number of uses for stored rain water. One application would be the use for irrigation. Pumping water from a tank would require less energy and effort than pulling it from the ground. Another use would be grey water applications. Although the rain water would require chemical treatment, supplementing potable water from local municipalities would certainly be a cost savings to the owner.

Chapter 3Data Collection

This study examines the current state of The UNC-Pembroke storm water infrastructure network. A field investigation was conducted to capture data specifics on infrastructure components like catch basins, drain piping, ditches and the conditions for both the infrastructure inventory as well as the current state of the surrounding area conditions.The investigation process captured the specific types of catch basins, piping and ditches as well as the dimensions of these infrastructure components. Figure 3.1 represents UNC-Pembroke campus map, which is provided to bear insight on the campus overall layout. Much of the storm water infrastructure is directly adjacent to and part of the roadway infrastructure. In order to effectively cover the 200-acre campus tract and keep the process manageable, the campus was segregated intoNorth and South sections. The two sections are divided by University Drive which is extended from the Eastern boundary which is Prospect Road to the Western boundary which is University Road.

Figure 3.1 UNC-Pembroke campus map (www.uncp.edu)

The next step was to divide each section into zones The zones extend from the Northern most portion of the campus to the Southernmost portion of the campus and within the confines of the Eastern and Western boundaries. These zones are identified by letters as well as color coded for easy use and tracking of the assessment process in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 UNC-Pembroke Campus Zones

UNC-Pembroke uses the zone approach for grounds operations and maintenance. This platform has been very successful so in keeping with that familiar approach the zones were expanded upon in number for this study. These zones consisted of Zone A through Zone I and were used specifically to divide the campus in easily identifiable sections. Although these zones are not equal i