24 May Identify the issue. Provide the necessary background and/or important recent developments. Define key terms and concepts. Engage the reader and ex
Required Elements:
1) A properly formatted APA title page
2) A properly formatted APA abstract
3) Body
- Introduction: Identify the issue. Provide the necessary background and/or important recent developments. Define key terms and concepts. Engage the reader and explain the broader significance of the issue.
- Arguments and Counterarguments: Summarize the best arguments on both sides of the issue. Include relevant research from credible sources used to support each conclusion. Devote at least one paragraph to each side.
- Evaluation of Critical Thinking: Assess the strength of the arguments and the quality of thinking surrounding this issue.
- Identify weaknesses in critical thinking such as fallacies, rhetorical devices, vague language, and cognitive biases. Provide specific examples of how these weaknesses appear in arguments you encountered, using terminology and definitions from the course. Be specific! Present evidence from your sources that show these fallacies/biases being used.
- Evaluate the quality of scientific and anecdotal evidence using the standards of inductive and deductive reasoning described in the course. Consider the quality of causal relationship, analogies, generalizations, and/or moral reasoning.
- Conclusion: Analyze the totality of research and offer a critical thinker’s response to the issue. Identify your own position and experience with the issue and explain how your thinking of the subject has evolved as a result of your analysis. Your conclusion does not have to be absolute, but it should not be equivocal. If both sides have good arguments, which is better, even if only slightly better, and what is the argument that tips the scales in the sides’ favor? Why does that point tip the scales?
- 4) A properly formatted APA reference list
Sources and Research Sources: You must use five scholarly or academic sources and all research should be published within the last five years. Sources not scholarly or academic in nature may affect your grade. It is highly recommended that most of your research be conducted via the WCU Library.
IMMIGRATION REFORM 1
Immigration Reform
Satyika Rayamajhi
West Coast University
PHIL341: Critical Reasoning
Professor: Michael Cook
Date: May 8
IMMIGRATION REFORM 2
Abstract
The paper covers immigration reforms and the various aspect it brings to society. The
argument that supports immigration and the benefits it brings to society is outlined in the paper
also the counterarguments, the fallacies related to immigration, and the way people take these
fallacies about immigration. The bias that is related to the cultural and social difference between
natives and immigrants is also pointed out in the report. The rhetorical devices that are related to
immigration have been used by our leaders to help us understand immigration from a different
perspective.
IMMIGRATION REFORM 3
Introduction
Immigration possesses an ongoing debate where people are concerned if immigration is
beneficial or not to society. This paper will be examining the benefits and counterarguments
concerning immigration. Immigration can be beneficial in society if it is well accepted within the
different communities and ethnic groups in the country. These arguments about immigration
have led to the change in policies regarding immigration making it difficult to gain access to
certain countries. This is due to fear and the misunderstanding that is brought by people in
society. The fallacies related to immigration are the various factors that will be discussed in this
report.
Those in favor of immigration have the belief that immigration has enriched the culture
of the host nation or society and has provided numerous benefits to the overall country.
Immigration leads to cross-cultural integration this is through the increase of ethnic variety
within a society. The increase in diversity helps in increasing and improving the society as well
as improving learning in individuals (Richards, 2018). This also means there is an increase in
skill development, this is where there is a learning opportunity for people to interact and get to
understand the difference in how things are done in various cultures. This helps one adjust their
ways of operation to be able to fit in the society. Immigration can be beneficial because there
will be an improvement in tax payment within the country that will lead to an increase in wages
increase.
Arguments and Counterarguments
Being controversial topic immigration has a conflicting opinions from various people
across the global scale. People believe that immigration takes away or manipulates the original
IMMIGRATION REFORM 4
culture and tradition of a given society this is where the introduction of new ways and behaviors
causes an unwanted change in the society that many people do not like. The perspective is that
immigration brings a bad influence on society hence, traditions are forgotten and people follow
new ways of life (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Traditions have changed in marriage, technology, and
many other aspects related to the mode of living in society. They argue that various countries
especially the state have cultures that hurt the society that causes a change in behavior within the
society. Some say that immigration is the root of crime where they equate the immigrants to
having brought terrorism into the county.
The argument is based on immigrants posing a unique threat due to terrorist attacks.
Terrorism is not the modern means of war various cases of bombing and terrorism attacks have
been reported in the early century, most committed by immigrants and socialists. Today attacks
from terrorism and death committed by immigrants are greater than in the past (Ma & Hofmann,
2019). Overall immigration is not correlated with terrorism and the risk of being killed by a
foreign-born terrorist is minimal. An example is an annual chance of being killed in a terror
attack that has been planned by a foreigner is about one in a million. Almost 98 percent of
people murdered by an immigrant on US soil were murdered and most of these attackers did not
enter the country through immigrant visas instead they used tourism or student visas to gain
passage into the country.
Evaluation of Critical Thinking
Cognitive bias is divided into various categories. Ingroup bias is related to the miss
understanding and the lack of the ability to speak fluent English which makes them separated
from the rest of the group (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). These individuals are tagged as the out-
group who are the immigrants as opposed to the in-group who are the native of the host country.
IMMIGRATION REFORM 5
The group that appears to be less familiar with the culture and the lack of assimilation into
American culture makes them be taken as the out-group.
Cognitive bias is based on the ability to integrate and find your way into the culture of the
society that one is associated with. Backfire is another form of confirmation bias where one is
too defensive in their opinions and strives to defend regardless of the changes and ideological
mix that surrounds the concept (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). Challenging information causes a
threat to the learner's sense of identity which makes it harder to understand or try to process the
new information that is being relayed to an individual.
The fallacies that are related to immigration include; the immigrants are required to do
the jobs that the natives will not do. This is taken as the native workers will not be able to do the
hard work or the difficult work. That this kind of work is reserved for immigrant employees who
come to seek work in their native countries (Kurajian, 2018). These jobs are event distributed
regardless of your status on immigration the native will work on construction jobs while the
immigrants can also work in offices and perform executive work. These kinds of fallacies are
misleading society causing bias among the citizens. For instance, in West Virginia where
immigrants the same job description is performed by the American workers.
Another fallacy that is related to immigration is that low-skilled immigrants were a
benefit in the past they must be beneficial in this current error. The argument is related to
technology and the political changes that have occurred in the past bringing changes to society.
Technology has taken over and has made work easier by taking care of the heavy work. Slavery
was practiced in the past and in current times rules and policies regarding labor have changed.
These fallacies should not be misleading individuals anymore.
IMMIGRATION REFORM 6
Barack Obama used rhetorical devices such as water and storm to illustrate the process of
immigration is a continuous factor in life and it won’t be reduced or changed any time soon
(Kjeldsen, 2019). Water in his speech represents the young generation that will be coming in for
learning opportunities to be able to diversify and explore the various opportunities that are
available during their learning process. Immigration is a continuous process that will keep
happening. It is our responsibility to make the best of it.
Conclusion
The research explores the various immigration reforms and the misunderstandings that it
brings to the people. Immigration is an important factor in a country since it brings more
advantages than demerits to the society and economy in general. Diversity is key to the
development and growth of a nation. This could be through trading, learning, or supporting
others during difficult times. Learn to support one another and coordinate to ensure we work as a
team to overcome challenges that we face in our daily encounters. Immigration brings different
opportunities that need to be taken to ensure we are successful in all sectors of life.
IMMIGRATION REFORM 7
References
Gönültaş, S., & Mulvey, K. L. (2020). The Role of Immigration Background, Intergroup
Processes, and Social‐Cognitive Skills in Bystanders’ Responses to Bias‐Based Bullying
Toward Immigrants During Adolescence. Child Development.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13476
Kjeldsen, J. E. (2019). Royal Interventions in the Public Discourse on Immigration: Rhetorical
Topoi on Immigration in the New Year’s Speeches of the Scandinavian Monarchs.
Javnost – the Public, 26(2), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2019.1587702
Kurajian, O. A. (2018). Debunking the Narratives of Inclusion: Immigration Policy in Quebec,
Canada, and the United States in the Age of Trump. Undergraduate Review, 14(2), 68–
75. https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol14/iss2/11/
Ma, G., & Hofmann, E. T. (2019). Immigration and environment in the U.S.: A spatial study of
air quality. The Social Science Journal, 56(1), 94–106.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.007
Richards, T. J. (2018). Immigration Reform and Farm Labor Markets. American Journal of
Agricultural Economics, 100(4), 1050–1071. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay027
,
moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd i 12/10/19 01:23 PM
Thirteenth Edition
Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker California State University, Chico
with help in Chapter 12 from Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers
Critical Thinking
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CRITICAL THINKING
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2017, 2015, and 2012. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-57069-4 MHID 1-260-57069-X
Cover Image: McGraw-Hill
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
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Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1
Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35
Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73
Chapter 4 Credibility 102
Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141
Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185
Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207
Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233
Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257
Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305
Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362
Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420
Brief Contents
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moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd v 12/10/19 01:23 PM
Contents
Preface xviii Changes to the 13th Edition xix Acknowledgments xxi About the Authors xxiv
Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Beliefs and Claims 4
Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments 4
Fact and Opinion 6
Relativism 7
Moral Subjectivism 7
Issues 7
Arguments 8
Cognitive Biases 15
Truth and Knowledge 21
What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 22
A Word About the Exercises 22
Recap 23
Additional Exercises 24
Answers and Tips 33
Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Arguments: General Features 35
Conclusions Used as Premises 36
Unstated Premises and Conclusions 36
Two Kinds of Arguments 37
Deductive Arguments 37
Inductive Arguments 38
Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 40
Two Kinds of Deductive Arguments 40
Four Kinds of Inductive Arguments 41
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vi CONTENTS
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Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 42
Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 44
Balance of Considerations 46
Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 46
Selfies (and Other Pictures) 46
If . . . Then . . . Sentences 47
Lists of Facts 47
“A because B” 48
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 48
Techniques for Understanding Arguments 53
Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 54
Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 56
Evaluating Arguments 57
Recap 57
Additional Exercises 58
Answers and Tips 68
Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73
Vagueness 74
Ambiguity 76
Semantic Ambiguity 77
Grouping Ambiguity 77
Syntactic Ambiguity 77
Generality 79
Defining Terms 84
Purposes of Definitions 84
Kinds of Definitions 85
Tips on Definitions 85
Writing Argumentative Essays 87
Good Writing Practices 89
Essay Types to Avoid 89
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CONTENTS vii
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Persuasive Writing 90
Writing in a Diverse Society 91
Recap 92
Additional Exercises 92
Answers and Tips 100
Chapter 4 Credibility 102 The Believability of Claims 103
Does the Claim Conflict with Personal Observation? 104
Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 107
Might the Claim Reinforce Our Biases? 108
The Credibility of Sources 111
Interested Parties 111
Physical and Other Characteristics 112
Expertise 113
The News 118
Mainstream News Media 118
Advertising 126
Three Kinds of Ads 126
Recap 129
Additional Exercises 130
Answers and Tips 139
Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Rhetorical Force 142
Rhetorical Devices I 143
Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 143
Weaselers 144
Downplayers 144
Rhetorical Devices II 146
Stereotypes 147
Innuendo 148
Loaded Questions 149
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viii CONTENTS
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Rhetorical Devices III 150
Ridicule/Sarcasm 150
Hyperbole 151
Rhetorical Devices IV 151
Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 152
Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 153
Proof Surrogates and Repetition 157
Proof Surrogates 157
Repetition 157
Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 161
The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 162
Recap 166
Additional Exercises 167
Answers and Tips 183
Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Argumentum Ad Hominem 186
Poisoning the Well 187
Guilt by Association 187
Genetic Fallacy 187
Straw Man 188
False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 189
The Perfectionist Fallacy 190
The Line-Drawing Fallacy 190
Misplacing the Burden of Proof 191
Begging the Question (Assuming What You Are Trying to Prove) 193
Appeal to Emotion 194
Argument from Outrage 194
Scare Tactics 195
Appeal to Pity 196
Other Appeals to Emotion 197
Irrelevant Conclusion 198
Recap 200
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CONTENTS ix
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Exercises 200
Answers and Tips 206
Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Generalizations 207
Generalizing from Too Few Cases (Hasty Generalization) 208
Generalizing from Exceptional Cases 210
Accident 211
Weak Analogy 212
Mistaken Appeal to Authority 213
Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 214
Mistaken Appeal to Common Practice 215
Bandwagon Fallacy 216
Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 217
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 217
Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 221
Slippery Slope 223
Untestable Explanation 224
Line-Drawing Again 225
Recap 225
Exercises 225
Answers and Tips 232
Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233
Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent, and Undistributed Middle 233
Affirming the Consequent 233
Denying the Antecedent 234
The Undistributed Middle 235
The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 237
The Fallacies of Composition and Division 239
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x CONTENTS
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Confusing Explanations with Excuses 240
Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 242
Consistency and Inconsistency 244
Miscalculating Probabilities 244
Incorrectly Combining the Probability of Independent Events 245
Gambler’s Fallacy 246
Overlooking Prior Probabilities 247
Faulty Inductive Conversion 247
Recap 249
Additional Exercises 250
Answers and Tips 256
Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Categorical Claims 259
Venn Diagrams 260
Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 261
Translating Claims in Which the Word “Only” or the Phrase “The Only” Occurs 262
Translating Claims About Times and Places 263
Translating Claims About Specific Individuals 264
Translating Claims that Use Mass Nouns 265
The Square of Opposition 268
Existential Assumption and the Square of Opposition 268
Inferences Across the Square 268
Three Categorical Relations 269
Conversion 269
Obversion 270
Contraposition 270
Categorical Syllogisms 278
The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 279
Existential Assumption in Categorical Syllogisms 282
Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 284
Real-Life Syllogisms 285
The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 289
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CONTENTS xi
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Recap 291
Additional Exercises 291
Answers and Tips 301
Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305
Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 306
Claim Variables 306
Truth Tables 306
Symbolizing Compound Claims 312
“If” and “Only If” 312
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 314
“Unless” 316
“Either . . . Or” 316
Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 318
Three Common Valid Argument Patterns 319
Three Mistakes: Invalid Argument Forms 322
Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 325
The Truth-Table Method 326
The Short Truth-Table Method 328
Deductions 334
Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 334
Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 339
Conditional Proof 347
Recap 350
Additional Exercises 351
Answers and Tips 358
Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Argument from Analogy 362
Evaluation of Arguments from Analogy 363
Three Arguments from Analogy 365
Other Uses of Analogy 366
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xii CONTENTS
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Generalizing from a Sample 371
Evaluation of Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372
Three Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372
Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 373
De-generalizing (Reverse Generalizing; the Statistical Syllogism) 375
Causal Statements and Their Support 382
Forming Causal Hypotheses 382
Weighing Evidence 384
Confirming Causal Hypotheses 395
Inference to the Best Explanation 399
Reasoning from Cause to Effect 401
Calculating Statistical Probabilities 402
Joint Occurrence of Independent Events 402
Alternative Occurrences 403
Expectation Value 403
Calculating Conditional Probabilities 404
Causation in the Law 406
Recap 407
Additional Exercises 408
Answers and Tips 416
Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Value Judgments 421
Moral Versus Nonmoral 422
Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 422
Moral Principles 424
Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 424
Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 427
Consequentialism 427
Duty Theory/Deontologism 429
Moral Relativism 430
Religious Relativism 432
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CONTENTS xiii
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Religious Absolutism 432
Virtue Ethics 432
Moral Deliberation 435
Legal Reasoning 439
Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 441
Aesthetic Reasoning 444
Eight Aesthetic Principles 444
Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 447
Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 448
Why Reason Aesthetically? 450
Recap 452
Additional Exercises 453
Answers and Tips 455
Appendix: Selected Exercises from Previous Editions 457
Glossary 480
Index 488
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moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM
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More Engaging
Moore & Parker are known for fresh and lively writing. They rely on their own classroom experience and on feedback from instructors in getting the correct balance between
explication and example.
■ ■ Examples and exercises are drawn from today’s headlines.
■ ■ Students learn to apply critical thinking skills to situ- ations in a wide variety of areas: advertising, poli- tics, the media, popular culture.
Critical Thinking . . . Skills for
First Pages
Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 19
moo41025_ch01_001-032.indd 19 09/06/19 12:33 PM
impossible to think that good judgment or rational thought would lead them to such excess.*
Yet another possible source of psychological distortion is the overconfidence effect, one of several self-deception biases that may be found in a variety of contexts.** If a person estimates the percentage of his or her correct answers on a subject, the esti- mate will likely err on the high side—at least if the questions are difficult or the subject matter is unfa- miliar.† Perhaps some manifestation of the overcon- fidence effect explains why, in the early stages of the American Idol competition, many contestants appear totally convinced they will be crowned the next American Idol—and are speechless when the judges inform them they cannot so much as carry a tune.††
Closely related to the overconfidence effect is the better-than-average illusion. The illusion crops up when most of a group rate themselves as better than most of the group relative to some desirable charac- teristics, such as resourcefulness or driving ability. The classic illustration is the 1976 survey of SAT tak- ers, in which well over 50 percent of the respondents rated themselves as better than 50 percent of other SAT takers with respect to such qualities as leader- ship ability.‡ The same effect has been observed when people estimate how their intelligence, memory, or job performance stacks up with the intelligence, memory, and job performances of other members of their profession or workplace. In
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