27 Sep Neobehaviorism
**attached are links and different attachments to help answer the 3 concept questions. please no plagiarism and no outside sources. thanks !
Behaviorism
Antecendents
Edward Thorndike
“Mind-reading” experiments
Chickens at Harvard
Escape is faster with each trial
Cats in puzzle boxes at Columbia
Trial-and-accidental success
Connectionism: learning occurs as a result of connections made between situations and responses
Thorndike, cont.
Law of Effect – responses are either:
Annoyers: weaken association between response and stimulus
Satisfiers: strengthen connection between response and stimulus
Truncated Law of Effect
Argued that behavior must be reduced to its simplest elements: S-R units
Ivan Pavlov
Planned on Priesthood, but read The Origin of Species and Reflexes of the Brain
Worked with S.P. Botkin (St. Petersburg Military Academy)
Nervism: the nervous system regulates most bodily functions
Classical conditioning (1927)
Pavlov’s Conditioning Experiments
Psychical Reflex: physiological reflex controlled by higher centers in the nervous system (UCR)
Psychical stimuli: a stimulus that elicits a response that is not appropriate to the stimulus (CS)
Different types of conditioned stimuli
Generalization: stimuli similar to CS elicits CR
Conditioning Experiments, cont.
Secondary Conditioning: pair a new CS with original CS
Extinction: decrease the association through repeated presentations of CS without the UCS
Discrimination: if another stimulus is different from CS, no CR will occur
Individual Differences in Conditioning
Conditioning Theories Before Pavlov
C. Dumas & the salivary reflex (1803)
Claude Bernard & waving at horses (1872)
Twitmeyer & patellar tendons (1902)
Birth of Behaviorism
John Watson
Replace the study of consciousness with the study of behavior
Goal: observation, prediction, and control
Studied with Gordon B. Moore
Chicago & Angell (remember the Chicago school)
Physiology under Loeb
Tropisms: unlearned orienting reactions toward and away from stimuli are mechanical responses
Watson’s Early Research
Dissertation: Speed of learning in rats of different ages
Chicago:
Maze learning in rats (with Carr), found memory of mazes stored in muscles, not senses
Watson at Johns Hopkins
“Behaviorist Manifesto” (Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, 1913)
Attacked by most of the people we’ve talked about
Little Albert
This account may not be entirely true
Other researchers were not able to replicate
Watson After Johns Hopkins
A scandal!
Move to advertising
Return to research with children
Curing Peter’s fears (1923)
Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928)
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Neobehaviorism
Observationism (Bridgman): language of science needs to be objective & precise
Rid science of “pseudoproblems”
A concept is the same as the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined
Operational Definition
Determines validity
Neobehaviorism
Purposive Behaviorism: study of overt behaviors with goal-directed behavior
Behavior is due to intention of achieving a goal or a means to an end (only interested in overt behavior)
Learning Theory: repeated performance strengthens the learned relationship between environment & expectations
Not reinforcement
Edward Tolman
Intervening Variables: Unobserved, inferred factors within an organism that are the real determinants of behavior
Occurs between the independent variable and the response (S-O-R Psychology)
These factors can be described in relation to empirical variables that we can measure
Tolman, cont.
Create a theory of behavior based on Pavlov
Principles of Behavior (1943)
Hypothetico-Deductive Method: theories should be developed which establish testable hypotheses
Law of Primary Reinforcement: when S-R relationship is followed by a reduction in need, the probability increases the same stimulus will evoke the same response later
Clark Hull
Drives
Primary drive: innate biological need states
Secondary drive: situations or environmental stimuli with reduction of primary drives
Habit Strength: greater number of reinforcements encountered, the stronger the association between them
Hull, etc.
Revitalization of Watson’s behaviorism
“Empty-organism” approach: belief that humans are controlled by forces in the environment
Operant Conditioning: behavior is emitted from an organism
Law of Acquisition: strength of an operant behavior is increased when reinforced
B.F. Skinner
Reinforcement Schedules: partial reinforcement is stronger than continuous
Interval: certain amount of time passes between reinforcements
Ratio: reinforcement occurs after a certain number of time the behavior occurs
Fixed and random types
Extinction is more difficult
Skinner, cont.
| Fixed: the same | Variable: different | |
| Interval: Amount of time between reinforcements | ||
| Ratio: Number of times behavior occurs |
| Fixed: the same | Variable: different | |
| Interval: Amount of time between reinforcements | Fixed interval: Reinforcements given after a fixed amount of time (e.g. pets knowing when it’s time to eat) | |
| Ratio: Number of times behavior occurs |
| Fixed: the same | Variable: different | |
| Interval: Amount of time between reinforcements | Fixed interval: Reinforcements given after a fixed amount of time (e.g. pets knowing when it’s time to eat) | Variable interval: the amount of time between reinforcements varies (e.g. fishing) |
| Ratio: Number of times behavior occurs |
| Fixed: the same | Variable: different | |
| Interval: Amount of time between reinforcements | Fixed interval: Reinforcements given after a fixed amount of time (e.g. pets knowing when it’s time to eat) | Variable interval: the amount of time between reinforcements varies (e.g. fishing) |
| Ratio: Number of times behavior occurs | Fixed ratio: the behavior must occur a set number of times (e.g. pay based on each 10 products made on an assembly line) |
| Fixed: the same | Variable: different | |
| Interval: Amount of time between reinforcements | Fixed interval: Reinforcements given after a fixed amount of time (e.g. pets knowing when it’s time to eat) | Variable interval: the amount of time between reinforcements varies (e.g. fishing) |
| Ratio: Number of times behavior occurs | Fixed ratio: the behavior must occur a set number of times (e.g. pay based on each 10 products made on an assembly line) | Variable ratio: behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis (e.g. slot machines) |
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Gestalt Psychology
Intro to Gestalt
Gestalt is German for “shape” or “form”
Initially interested in perception
Learning, problem solving, cognition
Mach, the positivist philosopher
Described properties of spatial and auditory forms
“Form quality”: As perceptual wholes, forms have qualities that distinguish them from their elements (Psychological Permanence)
von Ehrenfels
Transposability of melodies
Max Wertheimer
The question of apparent movement on a train
Freidrich Schumann (spatial perception) could not answer
Demonstration: a vertical white stripe followed by a horizontal white stripe
Schumann (1907): at certain speeds, appears to move
Apparent movement: perception of movement with stationary objects
Further Studies of Apparent Movement
Phi Phenomenon: when lights are separated by 50 to 60 ms, they appear to move from one position to another
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zbzt7Cb2e4
This is a psychological experience that is not reducible to its elements
This is a direct challenge to both structuralism and functionalism
4 Principles of Gestalt Theory
Holistic Thinking: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (supersummativity)
Phenomenological Basis: Phenomena are the subject matter of psychology
Methodology: Use lifelike (reality) experiments with small numbers of subjects
Isomorphism: Psychological processes are directly related to biological processes
Further Support
Edgar Rubin (1915): ambiguous figures
Evidence that perceptions are lively, active, and organized
Our perceptions appear as wholes, not pieces (as some other schools might suggest)
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Similarity: Equal and similar elements form groups or wholes
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Proximity: elements that are close together tend to be grouped
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Closure: our ability to “fill in” missing pieces
Good Gestalts: closure allows us to see a whole
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Continuity: connect elements in a way that makes them seem continuous or flowing in a particular direction
Wolfgang Köhler
Problem-solving in chimps
Argue against Thorndike’s trial and error
Learning experiments: organism perceives elements of a solution to arrive at the solution
Detour problem: direct access to a goal is blocked so Ss must make a detour
Problem solving with sticks: use stick as a tool to get food
Insight Learning
Insight learning: “appearance of a complete solution with reference to the whole lay-out of the field”
Solutions are based on a restructuring of the problem
Does not depend on rewards
Positive transfer from one problem to another
Animals learned to discriminate relationships between stimuli
Characteristics of Insight Studies
In animal enclosures/cages
Problem solving occurs when comfortable
Tested animals in the presence of others
Allowed for observational learning & imitation
Report results descriptively
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Psychoanalysis
Antecedents
Early psychiatrists had 2 camps:
Psychic: emotional or psychological problems led to abnormal behavior
Somatic: physical maladies are responsible for abnormal behavior
Psychoanalysis grew out of a revolt against this view
Development of Psychoanalysis
Grew out of traditions of medicine and psychiatry
Methods: observation
Interests: psychopathology & unconscious
Freud’s interests were not new
Wundt & dreams
Albert Moll & childhood sexuality
“Sexologists”
Freud’s Beginning
Medical school in hopes of research
Josef Breuer & Anna O.
Hysteria with paralysis, memory loss, disturbances in vision and speech
“Talking cure”
Charcot told him about the role of sex in hysterical behavior
Stopped using hypnosis – it didn’t work long-term
Freud’s Therapeutic Methods
Catharsis: deal with a complex by recalling it to consciousness and expressing it
Free Association: patient says anything that comes to mind
Unconscious thoughts expressed freely
Childhood memories, many concern sex
Dream Analysis: interpret dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts
Manifest content: what is happening
Latent content: what it means
Freud’s Therapy, cont.
Resistance: When free association stops flowing, memories are too painful to be dealt with
Repression: excluding unacceptable ideas, memories, and desires
The cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory
Psychoanalysis & Personality
Levels of Personality
Id: hedonistic
Pleasure principle
Superego: morality & conscience
Develops out of the Oedipus Complex
From parents and social norms
Ego: mediator
Reality Principle
Defense Mechanisms
Anxiety: warning that ego is being threatened
Defense Mechanisms: unconscious denials or distortions of reality to ease anxiety
Projection
Denial
Repression
NeoFreudians
Common Characteristics
Trained in psychoanalysis
De-emphasized the role of sex in personality development
Brought in other points of view
Changed the ideas about development
Anna Freud
Work with children
Developed a therapy that took into account immaturity and verbal limitations
Used play materials and observations in the home
Ego functions independently from the id
Expanded on defense mechanisms
Carl Jung
Many views stem from childhood experience
Analytical Psychology is different from Freud’s:
No Oedipus complex
Personality development in middle age
Focus on inner growth instead of social relationships
Personalities are based on hopes and aspirations
Jung & The Unconscious
2 parts to unconscious:
Personal unconscious: memories, impulses from our own life
Collective unconscious: cumulative experience of previous generations
Archetypes: innate determinants of mental life that cause us to behave like our ancestors
Appear as emotional reactions
Similarities across cultures
Jung & Personality
Some of his personality characteristics are still used now
Introversion/Extroversion
Psychological Types: express our personality through 4 functions:
Thinking
Feeling
Sensing
Intuiting
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PY 305 – History and Systems
Concept Check – Section 4
Directions: Answer each of these questions after reading the text and listening to the lecture. These
questions are to help you think critically about the material and will help to prepare you for the exams.
All answers must be in your own words. Do not copy definitions out of the book or from any other
source – explain your understanding of the terms. If any parts of your answers are copied from any
other source, you will receive a 0 and be reported to the Academic Integrity Committee for Academic
Misconduct. Proofread your work very carefully. Your writing is expected to be formal. Proper spelling
and grammar are imperative – if the reader cannot comprehend the writing, then the answer cannot be
understood. If the answers are not proofread carefully, you may receive a 0 for the assignment. Answer
each question thoroughly for full credit.
Write your answers using Word and attach it to the assignment link. Do not type your answers directly
into Blackboard.
1. Explain how Watson’s view was different from the psychologists in Germany. What do you think
about Watson’s views regarding what psychology should be? Explain your answer. Be specific.
2. In your opinion, can the philosophies of Behaviorism and Gestalt coexist in psychology, or is it
necessary to agree with one or the other? If they can coexist, explain how the two ideas can
inform each other. If not, explain why and which you believe is better than the other.
3. Discuss the theories and views of 2 of the neo-Freudians. Describe how their views were
different from Freud’s. Do you think their views are better or worse than Freud’s? Why?
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