08 Oct In chapter six you learned about learning. :) The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.? 1) Briefly
In chapter six you learned about learning. 🙂 The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
1) Briefly describe the key points from each of these learning styles.
2) Which learning style do you think is most effective? As a child, do you remember your parents using any of these? If so, which ones and give an example.
should be a minimum of 200 words and contain a scholarly reference that is NOT your textbook or videos I provided.
Chapter 6: Learning
Chapter 6: Learning
Photo credit: ©Peathegee Inc/Blend Images/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
1
Chapter Preview
Classical Conditioning
Observational Learning
Health and Wellness
Operant Conditioning
Factors That Affect Learning
Photo credit: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
For chapter 6
Learning Theory
Learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
Behaviorism
Associative Learning /
Conditioning
Observational Learning
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: “durable” is an excellent gloss for “relatively permanent.” “Exposure, practice, & repetition” are what a behaviorist means by “experience”
3
Classical Conditioning
Types of Learning
Helps to explain voluntary behavior.
Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence).
Photo credits: © Punchstock RF, © Photodisc Collection/Getty Images RF,
© Ryan McVay/Getty Images RF, © Photodisc Inc./Getty Images RF
Operant Conditioning
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
4
Operant Conditioning
Types of Learning
Helps to explain involuntary behavior.
Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office].
P
Classical Conditioning
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: The instructor may wish to point out that in the example of classical conditioning, getting stuck with a needle was NOT a consequence of the subject’s behavior (namely, being fearful)– after all, what doctor would punish fearful patients by sticking them whenever they express fear?
Rather, the fear response is shifted from being elicited by a natural [reflexive] stimulus (namely, pain) to a once neutral stimulus, the sight of a doctor’s office. Hence, Classical Conditioning is characterized as a shift in stimulus control.
5
Classical Conditioning
Food
(Stimulus)
Drool
(Response)
Sound
(Stimulus 2)
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
No Response
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Innate S-R Association
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Acquisition/Learning
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Pavlov’s research
6
Classical Conditioning
Food
(Stimulus)
Drool
(Response)
Sound
(Stimulus 2)
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Contingency: CS regularly followed by UCS
Contiguity: Time between CS & UCS
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: Rescorla points out that the nature of contingency that best promotes classical conditioning is the same as the contingency a researcher might use to infer cause and effect (as if the CS causes the UCS)
7
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
Photo credit: The Granger Collection, New York
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Suggestion: Instructor might point out that the frame labeled “conditioning” is not repeated merely once, but dozens of times.
Classical Conditioning
Bang
Fear
Rabbit
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Phobias
Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert.
Photo credit: Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Harris
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Classical Conditioning
Ad Actors
Fun
Product
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Application
Advertising
Photo credit: © Stockbyte/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
The positive associations with gorgeous actors having a grand time can become associated with a product they are shown using in a commercial ad.
10
Classical Conditioning
Medicine in Pill
Pain Relief, immune response
Pill
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Application
Placebo Effect
immune and endocrine responses
Photo credit: Jon Feingersh/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Through classical conditioning, the sight of or act of taking a pill with medicine soon comes to elicit the same pain relief as the medicine itself produces.
You may want to point out in the next slide that precisely the opposite effect occurs with drug tolerance.
11
Classical Conditioning
Drug Effect
Body Counteracts Drug
Drug Paraphernalia
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Application
Drug Tolerance / Habituation
Photo credit: © Rick Gomez/Corbis RF
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: The body naturally protects itself by attempting to neutralize the affects of psychoactive drugs (this is an unlearned reflex). Through classical conditioning, the body learns to anticipate the drug in the presence of drug paraphernalia, and begins neutralizing the drug before it is actually consumed. Thus, the body must take in even more of the drug to get the same effect. This is how classical conditioning creates drug tolerance. Also, this is why simply seeing drug paraphernalia can trigger withdrawal symptoms or “cravings”.
12
Classical Conditioning
Illness
Nausea
New Taste
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Paired
Learned Association
Application
Taste Aversion
Photo credit: Royalty-Free/CORBIS
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: Unlike conventional classical conditioning, taste aversion can occur under very impoverished learning conditions. In particular, a powerful taste aversion can be learned with just one exposure (rather than dozens) where the UCR does not occur for several hours (instead of within a split second). This is considered a counterexample to Pavlov’s theory, and shows that not all S-R associations stand on equal footing. Some are biologically primed, or as we shall see toward the end of the presentation, biologically “prepared”.
13
Classical Conditioning
Food
(Stimulus)
Drool
(Response)
Sound
(Stimulus 2)
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Generalization
CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Suggestion: Generalization is easily illustrated with sounds from markedly different bells, one on which the subject is trained, the second on which the subject is tested for generalization.
14
Classical Conditioning
Food
(Stimulus)
Drool
(Response)
Sound
(Stimulus 2)
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Discrimination
CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs.
Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Eventually the subject learns that one bell works and the other doesn’t
15
Classical Conditioning
Extinction
CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating.
Spontaneous Recovery
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning.
When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated.
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
16
Extinguishing Eating
Hunger
Eating
Food Cues
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Eating in the Absence of Hunger
Photo credit: © D. Hurst/Alamy Stock Photo
Repeatedly
Attended Without Hunger
Extinguished Association
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Classical Conditioning
Bullying
Fear
School
UCR
CR
CS
NS
UCS
Unlearned
Reflex
Repeatedly
Paired
Learned Association
Counterconditioning
Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR
Means: CS paired with new UCS
Friend
Fun
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
This diagram illustrates how school itself can become aversive when associated with bullies, but pleasant when associated with kindly friends. Thus, to counteract the association with bullies, keep the bullies away (extinction) and replace them with kindly friends (producing an incompatible response).
18
Operant Conditioning
To explain voluntary behaviors.
The consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence.
Photo credit: Fancy Collection / SuperStock
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
consequence strengthens or weakens an S – R connection
B.F. Skinner
expanded on Thorndike’s work
shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: An important contribution of B.F. Skinner was that he standardized the language scientists use to refer to learning. After all, Skinner’s undergraduate studies were not in Psychology, but English Literature.
Skinner worked with the U.S. military to train pigeons to guide missiles/torpedoes, per above illustration.
20
Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence
rewarding stimulus is “added”
Negative Reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
Photo credits: Francisco Cruz/Purestock/SuperStock,
Digital Vision/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: It is important to stress that positive means “something is added,” that negative means “something is removed,” and that reinforcement is defined by the resulting effect on behavior (increase).
Activity/Demonstration: Ask students to generate examples of both positive and negative reinforcement.
21
Reinforcement
Teacher praises
Turn homework in on time
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
Teacher stops criticizing
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Reinforcement
Skis go faster
Wax skis
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
People stop zooming by on slope
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Reinforcement
Great music starts playing
Press an odd button on dashboard of friend’s car
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
Annoying music stops playing
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: The scenario here is you sit down in a friend’s car and notice that there are several interesting buttons on the dash. You randomly press one out of curiosity.
24
Reinforcement
Avoid negative stimulus
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
Negative stimulus never occurs
Avoidance Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: The consequence in avoidance reinforcement is indirect: It amounts to consequence prevention, which is far different from negative reinforcement. The latter is stimulus removal—an actual consequence.
25
Reinforcement
All kinds of attempts
Behavior
Nothing Works
Failure To Reinforce
Learned helplessness:
an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
innately satisfying
Secondary Reinforcers
become satisfying through experience
repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer
token economy
Photo credit: © Photodisc / Alamy
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: A few decades ago, secondary reinforcement was proffered as an account of why young children cling to their mothers. Mom feeds the infant: Food (primary reinforcer) ; Mom (secondary). Keep in mind that Harlow’s research with monkeys and terry-cloth mothers has debunked this analysis. Social stimulation is definitely a primary reinforcer.
27
Types of Reinforced Behavior
Generalization
stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
responding occurs to similar stimuli
Discrimination
stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
Photo credit: Cardinal//Corbis
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: Remind students that these concepts are a carryover from Classical Conditioning
28
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
fixed
variable
ratio
interval
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
29
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average)
Photo credit: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./John Thoeming, photographer;
© David Sacks/The Image Bank/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
30
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed
Variable Interval (VI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed
Photo credit: Center for Universal Design/CDC,
Ingram Publishing
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: A commonly used but incorrect example of Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement is the weekly paycheck. By definition, a “fixed interval” of time is an interval of waiting, where behavior would be pointless because it will not be reinforced. Note that unlike waiting for the regularly scheduled mail delivery, waiting for a paycheck without working in the meantime is not conducive to eliciting reinforcement from one’s employer. The worker needs to work the entire week in order to receive a delayed reward. Waiting until payday before you start working—a bad idea. So the weekly paycheck is a delayed reward schedule, not a fixed interval schedule. On the other hand, waiting until payday to look for the check in the mail, that is indeed an interval schedule of reinforcement, but it is just a specific case of the original example of checking the mail.
31
Schedules of Reinforcement
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
32
Punishment
Punishment decreases behavior.
Positive Punishment
behavior followed by aversive consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
Negative Punishment
behavior followed by aversive consequence
rewarding stimulus is “removed”
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
33
Reinforcement
Allergic reaction
Take aspirin for headache
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
Lose sympathetic attention of spouse
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Punishment decreases behavior.
Headache goes away
Negative Reinforcement
Photo credit: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: The answer to the question, “What is the effect on the behavior?” is not the same for the three consequences presented on this slide.
34
Reinforcement
Get pulled over and ticketed
Show off by speeding
Behavior
What is the effect on the behavior?
Lose $250 to pay ticket
Punishment decreases behavior.
Lose gangster who had been tailing you
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
Photo credit: moodboard/Corbis
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Note: This example presumes that getting pulled over and ticketed is aversive in its own right, even if you only get a warning.
35
Operant Conditioning
Timing of Consequences
immediate versus delayed reinforcement
immediate versus delayed punishment
Applied Behavior Analysis
behavior modification
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Delayed consequences work much differently (more effectively) on adult humans than on animals and small children.
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs when a person
observes and imitates behavior (modeling).
Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
Four Processes of Observational Learning
attention
retention
motor reproduction
reinforcement
Photo credit: blue jean images/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
37
Cognitive Factors in Learning
Do cognitions matter?
Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections?
Purposive Behavior in Humans
goal directed
goal setting
self-regulation and self-monitoring
Photo credit: © Author’s Image/PunchStock
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
Cognitive Factors in Learning
Expectancy Learning
information value
Latent Learning/Implicit Learning
Insight Learning
© McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display
39
Other Factors in Learning
Biological Constraints
instinctive drift
preparedness
Cult
Our website has a team of professional writers who can help you write any of your homework. They will write your papers from scratch. We also have a team of editors just to make sure all papers are of HIGH QUALITY & PLAGIARISM FREE. To make an Order you only need to click Ask A Question and we will direct you to our Order Page at WriteDemy. Then fill Our Order Form with all your assignment instructions. Select your deadline and pay for your paper. You will get it few hours before your set deadline.
Fill in all the assignment paper details that are required in the order form with the standard information being the page count, deadline, academic level and type of paper. It is advisable to have this information at hand so that you can quickly fill in the necessary information needed in the form for the essay writer to be immediately assigned to your writing project. Make payment for the custom essay order to enable us to assign a suitable writer to your order. Payments are made through Paypal on a secured billing page. Finally, sit back and relax.
About Wridemy
We are a professional paper writing website. If you have searched a question and bumped into our website just know you are in the right place to get help in your coursework. We offer HIGH QUALITY & PLAGIARISM FREE Papers.
How It Works
To make an Order you only need to click on “Order Now” and we will direct you to our Order Page. Fill Our Order Form with all your assignment instructions. Select your deadline and pay for your paper. You will get it few hours before your set deadline.
Are there Discounts?
All new clients are eligible for 20% off in their first Order. Our payment method is safe and secure.