1.What are the three types of jaundice that may present as a result of liver dysfunction? Describe the cause of each.(1 Point)

2.What is cholestasis? What are the two types of cholestasis and how do they differ?(1 Point)

3.What is biliary sludge and how does its presence lead to the development of gallstones?(1 Point)

4.How can choledocholithiasis lead to acute pancreatitis? Why would this result in damage to pancreatic cells?(1 Point)
 

5.Urolithiasis is a term used to describe stones (calculi) that form in the urinary system. What are the three different types and what part of the urinary system do these occur? What factors might be responsible for calculi forming and what are the possible ramifications if a stone cannot be passed in the urine?
(1 Point)

6.An ascending lower urinary tract infection (more commonly in women or during pregnancy) often leads to which condition?(1 Point)

7.What are the body's natural defenses against lower urinary tract infections? How are these defenses overcome by various organisms that eventually lead to an infection?
(1 Point)

8.What are the two likely pathophysiological mechanisms of acute Glomerulonephritis? What common infection usually triggers acute glomerulonephritis? Describe the bodily effects of damage to the glomeruli. 

 9.What is the most common type of bladder cancer? Where in the bladder does this type of cancer begin and at what point can it begin to metastasize? What is typically the only indication that one might have bladder cancer?(1 Point)

10.What is the most common type of kidney cancer and what are some common causes and risk factors? Describe briefly, the differences in the 4 stages of renal cell carcinoma. 

 11.Describe the function(s) of the following parts of a nephron: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, juxtaglomerular apparatus, proximal tubule, Loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting duct.(1 Point)

12.What are the common conditions that are risk factors to developing Chronic Renal Failure? Why do the initial stages of CRF have few problems that manifest in patients? At which stage does End Stage Renal Disease begin?(1 Point)

13.Describe at least 3 problems observed throughout the body as a result of End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) and why this problem is caused by poor kidney function. What are the two treatments for ESRD? 

14.What are two differences between hemodialysis and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT)? Why might CRRT be the preferred treatment over hemodialysis?(1 Point)