Educational Psychology

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Educational Psychology Second Edition

Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Copyright © 2009 Kelvin Seifert

For any questions about this text, please email: [email protected]

Editor-In-Chief: Kelvin Seifert

Associate Editor: Marisa Drexel

Editorial Assistant: Jackie Sharman

Proofreader: Rachel Pugliese

The Global Text Project is funded by the Jacobs Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Educational Psychology 2 A Global Text

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

About the authors and reviewer Author, Kelvin Seifert

Kelvin Seifert is professor of educational psychology at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. He

earned a BA from Swarthmore College in 1967 and a PhD from the University of Michigan in 1973, in a combined

program from the School of Education and the Department of Psychology. His research interests include the

personal identity development of teachers, the impact of peers in 0pre-service teacher education, and the

development of effective strategies of blended learning. He is the author of four university textbooks (with

Houghton Mifflin, in traditional print format) about educational psychology, child and adolescent development,

and lifespan human development. He is also the editor of the online Canadian Journal of Educational

Administration and Policy. Recent publications include “Student cohorts: Support groups or intellectual

communities?” (Teachers College Record) and “Learning about peers: A missed opportunity for educational

psychology” (The Clearinghouse). His professional service includes serving as chair of the Department of

Educational Administration, Foundations, and Psychology at the University of Manitoba, and serving as president

of the American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group on Teaching Educational Psychology.

During his career of 35 years, he has taught introductory educational psychology over 75 times.

Author, Rosemary Sutton

After four years of teaching high school mathematics in New Zealand, Dr Rosemary Sutton attended graduate

school and earned her MS in Educational Psychology from the University of Illinois and her PhD from Pennsylvania

State University in Human Development. She joined the Cleveland State University faculty in Cleveland, Ohio in

1983 and since that time has taught pre-service and in service undergraduates and graduate students educational

psychology and educational technology. She has received several University awards for her teaching and has

conducted numerous workshops for teachers in North East Ohio.

Dr Sutton has published a variety research articles on teacher development as well as equity issues in

mathematics, technology, and assessment. Her recent research interests have focused in two areas: teaching

educational psychology and teachers' emotions. Recent publications can be found in Social Psychology of

Education, Educational Psychology Review, Journal of Teacher Education, and an edited volume, Emotions and

Education.

Since 2004, Dr Sutton has been working as an Administrator, first as the Director of Assessment for the

University. This position involved coordinating the student learning assessment for all graduate, undergraduate,

and student support programs. In August 2007, Dr Sutton was appointed Vice Provost for Undergraduate Studies

and is now responsible for overseeing offices and functions from academic and student service areas in order to

create a campus culture that coordinates student services with the academic mission of the University.

Reviewer, Sandra Deemer

Sandra Deemer is professor of educational foundations at Millersville University, in Millersville, PA. She is also

the editor of the online journal called "Teaching Educational Psychology," and has contributed to the development

of the Special Interest Group on Teaching Educational Psychology (TEP SIG) sponsored by the American

Educational Research Association. She teaches courses in educational psychology and educational research; her

research interests focus on how motivational theory can be used to create learning-focused classrooms.

Educational Psychology 3 A Global Text

Table of Contents Preface……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

1. The changing teaching profession and you…………………………………………………………………..8 The joys of teaching………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8

Are there also challenges to teaching?………………………………………………………………………………………………10 Teaching is different from in the past……………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

How educational psychology can help………………………………………………………………………………………………16

2. The learning process ……………………………………………………………………………………………….20 Teachers’ perspectives on learning…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20 Major theories and models of learning……………………………………………………………………………………………. 23

3. Student development………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41 Why development matters…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42

Physical development during the school years…………………………………………………………………………………. 43 Cognitive development: the theory of Jean Piaget……………………………………………………………………………. 46

Social development: relationships,personal motives, and morality …………………………………………………….50 Moral development: forming a sense of rights and responsibilities……………………………………………………. 56

Understanding “the typical student” versus understanding students………………………………………………….. 61

4. Student diversity……………………………………………………………………………………………………..66 Individual styles of learning and thinking……………………………………………………………………………………….. 67 Multiple intelligences……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 68

Gifted and talented students………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70 Gender differences in the classroom……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72

Differences in cultural expectations and styles…………………………………………………………………………………. 75 Accommodating diversity in practice……………………………………………………………………………………………… 80

5. Students with special educational needs…………………………………………………………………… 85 Three people on the margins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..85

Growing support for people with disabilities: legislation and its effects……………………………………………… 86 Responsibilities of teachers for students with disabilities…………………………………………………………………..87

Categories of disabilities—and their ambiguities………………………………………………………………………………. 91 Learning disabilities……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….91

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder…………………………………………………………………………………………… 94 Intellectual disabilities………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 96

Behavioral disorders………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………99 Physical disabilities and sensory impairments…………………………………………………………………………………101

The value of including students with special needs…………………………………………………………………………. 104

6. Student motivation……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 109 Motives as behavior………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………110 Motives as goals…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 113

Motives as interests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 116 Motives related to attributions……………………………………………………………………………………………………….118

Motivation as self-efficacy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120 Motivation as self-determination………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 125

Expectancy x value: effects on students’ motivation…………………………………………………………………………130 TARGET: a model for integrating ideas about motivation…………………………………………………………………131

7. Classroom management and the learning environment……………………………………………. 138 Why classroom management matters……………………………………………………………………………………………. 139

4

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Preventing management problems by focusing students on learning…………………………………………………140 Responding to student misbehavior……………………………………………………………………………………………….150

Keeping management issues in perspective……………………………………………………………………………………. 155

8. The nature of classroom communication………………………………………………………………….159 Communication in classrooms vs communication elsewhere…………………………………………………………… 159 Effective verbal communication……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 162

Effective nonverbal communication……………………………………………………………………………………………….163 Structures of participation: effects on communication……………………………………………………………………..166

Communication styles in the classroom………………………………………………………………………………………….169 Using classroom talk to stimulate students’ thinking………………………………………………………………………. 172

The bottom line: messages sent, messages reconstructed………………………………………………………………… 176

9. Facilitating complex thinking………………………………………………………………………………….183 Forms of thinking associated with classroom learning……………………………………………………………………..184 Critical thinking………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 185

Creative thinking …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………186 Problem-solving………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 187

Broad instructional strategies that stimulate complex thinking………………………………………………………… 191 Teacher-directed instruction………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 193

Student-centered models of learning……………………………………………………………………………………………. 200 Inquiry learning………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 201

Cooperative learning…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 202 Examples of cooperative and collaborative learning……………………………………………………………………….. 203

Instructional strategies: an abundance of choices……………………………………………………………………………205

10. Planning instruction……………………………………………………………………………………………. 210 Selecting general learning goals……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 210 Formulating learning objectives……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 215

Students as a source of instructional goals…………………………………………………………………………………….. 223 Enhancing student learning through a variety of resources………………………………………………………………226

Creating bridges among curriculum goals and students’ prior experiences……………………………………….. 229 Planning for instruction as well as for learning………………………………………………………………………………. 235

11. Teacher-made assessment strategies…………………………………………………………………….. 240 Basic concepts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 241

Assessment for learning: an overview of the process………………………………………………………………………..241 Selecting appropriate assessment techniques I: high quality assessments…………………………………………243

Reliability ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 245 Absence of bias ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 246

Selecting appropriate assessment techniques II: types of teacher-made assessments…………………………246 Selected response items………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..249

Constructed response items ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 254 Portfolios…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….264

Assessment that enhances motivation and student confidence………………………………………………………… 267 Teachers’ purposes and beliefs …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 267

Choosing assessments ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 268 Providing feedback …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 268

Self and peer assessment ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..269 Adjusting instruction based on assessment…………………………………………………………………………………….270

Communication with parents and guardians…………………………………………………………………………………..270

Educational Psychology 5 A Global Text

Action research: studying yourself and your students……………………………………………………………………… 271

Grading and reporting ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 272

12. Standardized and other formal assessments……………………………………………………………277 Basic concepts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 277 High-stakes testing by states…………………………………………………………………………………………………………283

International testing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 291 International comparisons ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 292

Understanding test results…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 292 Issues with standardized tests ………………………………………………………………………………………………………298

Appendix A: Preparing for licensure………………………………………………………………………….. 304 Appendix B: Deciding for yourself about the research…………………………………………………..319 Appendix C: The reflective practitioner………………………………………………………………………. 351

Types of resources for professional development and learning………………………………………………………… 352

Reading and understanding professional articles ……………………………………………………………………………355 Action research: hearing from teachers about improving practice……………………………………………………. 366

The challenges of action research………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 371 Benefiting from all kinds of research…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 373

6

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Preface Dr. Kelvin Seifert: Why I wanted this book to be part of the Global Textbook Project

I have taught educational psychology to future

teachers for nearly 35 years, during which I used one or

another of the major commercial textbooks written for

this subject. In general I found all of the books well-

written and thorough. But I also found problems:

(1) Though they differed in details, the major

textbooks were surprisingly similar in overall coverage.

This fact, coupled with their large overall size, made it

hard to tailor any of the books to the particular interests

or needs of individuals or groups of students. Too often,

buying a textbook was like having to buy a huge Sunday

newspaper when all you really want is to read one of its

sections. In a similar way, commercial educational

psychology textbooks usually told you more than you

ever needed or wanted to know about the subject. As a

format, the textbook did not allow for individualization.

(2) Educational psychology textbooks were always

expensive, and over the years their costs rose faster than inflation, especially in the United States, where most of the

books have been produced. Currently every major text about educational psychology sells for more than USD 100.

At best this cost is a stress on students' budgets. At worst it puts educational psychology textbooks beyond the reach

of many. The problem of the cost is even more obvious when put in worldwide perspective; in some countries the

cost of one textbook is roughly equivalent to the average annual income of its citizens.

(3) In the competition to sell copies of educational psychology textbooks, authors and publishers have gradually

added features that raise the cost of books without evidence of adding educational value. Educational psychology

publishers in particular have increased the number of illustrations and photographs, switched to full-color editions,

increased the complexity and number of study guides and ancillary publications, and created proprietary websites

usable fully only by adopters of their particular books. These features have sometimes been attractive. My teaching

experience suggests, however, that they also distract students from learning key ideas about educational psychology

about as often as they help students to learn.

By publishing this textbook online with the Global Textbook Project, I have taken a step toward resolving these

problems. Instructors and students can access as much or as little of the textbook as they really need and find

useful. The cost of their doing is minimal. Pedagogical features are available, but are kept to a minimum and

rendered in formats that can be accessed freely and easily by anyone connected to the Internet. In the future,

revisions to the book will be relatively easy and prompt to make. These, I believe, are desirable outcomes for

everyone! –Kelvin Seifert

Educational Psychology 7 A Global Text

Dr. Kelvin Seifert

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

1. The changing teaching profession and you

A teacher named Ashley reflects: She looked around the classroom, enjoying a blessed moment of

quiet after the students left at the end of the day. “Ashley, the teacher, that’s me”, she said proudly to

the empty room. “But why am I doing this?” she asked herself quietly—and realized she wasn’t

always sure of the answer. But then she remembered one reason: she was teaching for Nadia, who

sat at the table to the left, always smiled so well and always (well, usually) tried hard. And another

reason: she was teaching for Lincoln, tired old Lincoln, who needed her help more than he realized.

She remembered twenty other reasons—twenty other students. And one last reason: she was also

teaching for herself, challenging herself to see if she really could keep up with twenty-two young

people at once, and really accomplish something worthwhile with them. She was teaching so she

could keep growing as a person, keep connecting with others, keep learning new ideas. That’s why

she was teaching.

The joys of teaching

Why be a teacher? The short answer is easy:

• to witness the diversity of growth in young people, and their joy in learning

• to encourage lifelong learning—both for yourself and for others

• to experience the challenge of devising and doing interesting, exciting activities for the young

There is, of course, more than this to be said about the value of teaching. Consider, for instance, the “young

people” referred to above. In one class they could be six years old; in another they could be sixteen, or even older.

They could be rich, poor, or somewhere in between. They could come from any ethnic background. Their first

language could be English, or something else. There are all sorts of possibilities. But whoever the particular

students are, they will have potential as human beings: talents and personal qualities—possibly not yet realized—

that can contribute to society, whether as leaders, experts, or supporters of others. A teacher's job—in fact a

teacher's privilege—is to help particular “young people” to realize their potential.

Another teacher reflects: Nathan paused for a deep breath before speaking to me. “It’s not like I

expected it to be,” he said. “I’ve got five kids who speak English as a second language. I didn’t expect

that. I’ve got two, maybe three, with reading disabilities, and one of them has a part-time aide. I’ve

had to learn more about using computers than I ever expected—they’re a lot of curriculum materials

online now, and the computers help the kids that need more practice or who finish activities early.

I’m doing more screening and testing of kids than I expected, and it all takes time away from

teaching.

Educational Psychology 8 A Global Text