19 Jun Pick a case from the chapter 6 document and: 1. Get the facts straight. Review the case. Briefly recap the details of the case at the beginning of your paper. 2. Ide
(Use attached documents.) Pick a case from the chapter 6 document and:
1. Get the facts straight. Review the case. Briefly recap the details of the case at the beginning of your paper.
2. Identify the central stakeholders in the case. Identify 6 stakeholders then narrow your analysis down to 3.
3. Identify the technical/professional problem in the case.
4. Identify the Ethical problem or problems in the case.
5. Solve the technical and ethical problems using both technical and Ethical standards. Analyze the case from 3 perspectives, use 1 ethical principle for each perspective. In Addition you must now also apply 3 principles from the ACM code of ethics in your analysis. 1 principle should be applied for each of the 3 stakeholder perspectives you analyze. You are now applying 6 ethical principles in your analysis, 3 philosophical ethical principles and 3 principles from the code of ethics.
6. Will your solution to the problem withstand criticism from the perspectives of both a variety of Ethical principles and Professionals in your field?
7. What recommendations can you make about the problems in the case based upon your ethical analysis?
When you construct your analysis be sure and remember that we are assigning a 3-4 page analysis. With this length limitation it is important to realize that you will probably only be able to look at the problems in the case from three stakeholder perspectives. If you try to analyze every stakeholder perspective you will probably exceed the length limitation.
Application of Ethical Principles
Richard L. Wilson
Applied Ethics
To engage in Applied Ethics is to attempt to identify problems that will arise in a discipline such as Bioethics, Business Ethics, Engineering Ethics or Computer Science Ethics.
Once an Ethical issue or problem has been identified the next step is to apply an ethical principle to the problem or issue.
What is accomplished in this analysis is an exploration of what an ethical principle will say about the application of the ethical principle to a subject matter or to the details of a specific case.
BDI model of Agency
Beliefs
intention action outcome
Desires
Moral Agency and Application of Ethical Principles
Moral agency is concerned with determining how according to moral systems and theories, rational and practical agents can be held morally responsible and accountable.
The problem that we have to confront is what is referred to by James Rachel's as the problem of definition. ( see James Rachel's the elements of moral philosophy McGraw-Hill, 7ed., 2012. P. 1)
“Moral philosophy is the study of what morality is and what it requires of us. As Socrates said, it's about’ how we ought to live’ – and why. it would be helpful if we could begin with a simple uncontroversial definition of what morality is, but that turns out to be impossible there are many rival theories….”
https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1066&context=computersci_fac
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Ethics and Moral Agency
In order to understand the ethical issues involved with situations and cases we need to have an additional understanding of ethics and moral responsibility.
Ethics in a basic definition relates to agents who perform actions. Dwight Furrow identifies the focus of ethical analysis as involving a series of factors.
As Furrow states, ethics is related to evaluating actions and actions are performed by those capable of being moral agents.
Furrow continues by stating, “When we evaluate an action, we can focus on various dimensions of the action. We can evaluate the person who is acting, the intention or motive of the person acting, the nature of the act itself, or the consequences.” (Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy, Dwight Furrow, Continuum, New York, NY. p. 44.)
https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1066&context=computersci_fac
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BDI model and Ethics
Beliefs
Goals
Character Traits Intentions Actions Outcomes
Virtue Ends Ethics
Desires
Deontology Consequentialism
Aristotle Kant and Ross Mill
Definition: Ethical Principles
Ethical principles do not provide a straightforward guide that guarantees the making of an ethically correct decision, nor can they offer guidance about ranking when the principles appear to conflict with one another.
Instead, they point only to considerations that should be weighed when making decisions.
Ethical principles provide a generalized framework within which particular ethical dilemmas may be analyzed, these principles can provide guidance in resolving ethical issues that arise about topics in general and specific cases.
Examples of Philosophical Ethical Principles
Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)
Deontology (Kant)
Utilitarianism/Consequentialism (Mill)
Rights based Ethical Principles
Honest Work
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How to Apply Ethical Principles
Look at any of the Ethical principles and think about how the rule you pick applies to your subject matter and/or the specifics of your case.
You also need to consider how the principle your select, from the perspective of Medicine, Business, Computer Science applies to your subject.
For example: How does Consequentialism apply to a stakeholder concerned with your topic or involved in your case such as Autonomous Cars?
Look at any of the Ethical principles and think about how the principle you select applies to your subject matter or the details of your case.
You also need to consider how the principle you select, from the perspective of Medicine, Business, Computer Science applies to your subject or case.
For example: How does Character Traits apply to the individuals concerned with your topic or to specific stakeholders in the case you are analyzing?
State – Define – Apply
Principle Stated: Positive Rights
Principle Defined: Beauchamp and Childress, authors and ethical theorists, have defined the term "right" to be a "justified claim that individuals and groups can make upon other individuals or upon society; to have a right is to be in a position to determine by one's choices, what others should do or need not do."
Principle Applied: Each individual has the positive right not to be vaccinated.
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-rights-based-ethics.html
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Applying Virtue Ethics
Step 1: State the Principle: Virtue Ethics
Virtues are admirable traits of Character (Hoppe, p. 21)
Step 2: Define Virtue Ethics: A truthful person speaks truthfully to others, a compassionate person acts with compassion towards others, a justice person acts fairly towards others.
Step 3: Describe how a virtue or virtues apply to a stakeholder in your subject or Case.
Applying Deontological Ethics
Step 1: State the Principle: Categorical Imperative 1
An unconditional moral obligation which is binding in all circumstances and is not dependent on a person's inclination or purpose.
Step 2: Define CI 1: “So act as if the maxim of your action (that is the principle of conduct underlying the action) were to become through your will a universal law of nature.” Honest Work, p. 6
Step 3: Describe how Categorical Imperative 1 applies to a stakeholder in your subject or Case.
Applying Consequentialist Ethics
Step 1: State the Principle: Act Consequentialism
An unconditional moral obligation which is binding in all circumstances and is not dependent on a person's inclination or purpose.
Step 2: Define CI 1: Act consequentialism is the claim that an act is morally right if and only if that act maximizes the good, that is, if and only if the total amount of good for all minus the total amount of bad for all is greater than this net amount for any incompatible act available to the agent on that occasion.
Step 3: Describe how Act Consequentialism applies to a stakeholder in your subject or Case.
https://www.bing.com/search?q=act+consequentialism+definition&form=PRUSEN&mkt=en-us&httpsmsn=1&msnews=1&rec_search=1&refig=374c201d9833452998030af0039eef30&sp=5&qs=AS&pq=act+consequentialism&sk=AS4&sc=7-20&cvid=374c201d9833452998030af0039eef30
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A Working Definition of “Moral Responsibility.”
We use “moral responsibility” to indicate that people are answerable for their behavior (virtues, intentions, duties, actions and outcomes of actions when they are involved in a case or when they assessing a case or topic.
“Moral responsibility” includes an obligation to adhere to reasonable standards of behavior, and to respect others who could be affected by the behavior.
This involves being able to defend suggested courses of action using ethical principles.
Sources
Bratman, Michael
Cuilla Honest Work
Furrow,Dwight
Hoppe
Rachels
Seay and Nucetelli
Tavani
,
ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
Preamble
Computing professionals' actions change the world. To act responsibly, they should reflect upon
the wider impacts of their work, consistently supporting the public good. The ACM Code of
Ethics and Professional Conduct ("the Code") expresses the conscience of the profession.
The Code is designed to inspire and guide the ethical conduct of all computing professionals,
including current and aspiring practitioners, instructors, students, influencers, and anyone who
uses computing technology in an impactful way. Additionally, the Code serves as a basis for
remediation when violations occur. The Code includes principles formulated as statements of
responsibility, based on the understanding that the public good is always the primary
consideration. Each principle is supplemented by guidelines, which provide explanations to
assist computing professionals in understanding and applying the principle.
Section 1 outlines fundamental ethical principles that form the basis for the remainder of the
Code. Section 2 addresses additional, more specific considerations of professional
responsibility. Section 3 guides individuals who have a leadership role, whether in the workplace
or in a volunteer professional capacity. Commitment to ethical conduct is required of every ACM
member, and principles involving compliance with the Code are given in Section 4.
The Code as a whole is concerned with how fundamental ethical principles apply to a computing
professional's conduct. The Code is not an algorithm for solving ethical problems; rather it
serves as a basis for ethical decision-making. When thinking through a particular issue, a
computing professional may find that multiple principles should be taken into account, and that
different principles will have different relevance to the issue. Questions related to these kinds of
issues can best be answered by thoughtful consideration of the fundamental ethical principles,
understanding that the public good is the paramount consideration. The entire computing
profession benefits when the ethical decision-making process is accountable to and transparent
to all stakeholders. Open discussions about ethical issues promote this accountability and
transparency.
1. GENERAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES.
A computing professional should…
1.1 Contribute to society and to human well-being, acknowledging that all people are stakeholders in computing.
This principle, which concerns the quality of life of all people, affirms an obligation of computing
professionals, both individually and collectively, to use their skills for the benefit of society, its
members, and the environment surrounding them. This obligation includes promoting
fundamental human rights and protecting each individual's right to autonomy. An essential aim
of computing professionals is to minimize negative consequences of computing, including
threats to health, safety, personal security, and privacy. When the interests of multiple groups
conflict, the needs of those less advantaged should be given increased attention and priority.
Computing professionals should consider whether the results of their efforts will respect
diversity, will be used in socially responsible ways, will meet social needs, and will be broadly
accessible. They are encouraged to actively contribute to society by engaging in pro bono or
volunteer work that benefits the public good.
In addition to a safe social environment, human well-being requires a safe natural environment.
Therefore, computing professionals should promote environmental sustainability both locally
and globally.
1.2 Avoid harm.
In this document, "harm" means negative consequences, especially when those consequences
are significant and unjust. Examples of harm include unjustified physical or mental injury,
unjustified destruction or disclosure of information, and unjustified damage to property,
reputation, and the environment. This list is not exhaustive.
Well-intended actions, including those that accomplish assigned duties, may lead to harm.
When that harm is unintended, those responsible are obliged to undo or mitigate the harm as
much as possible. Avoiding harm begins with careful consideration of potential impacts on all
those affected by decisions. When harm is an intentional part of the system, those responsible
are obligated to ensure that the harm is ethically justified. In either case, ensure that all harm is
minimized.
To minimize the possibility of indirectly or unintentionally harming others, computing
professionals should follow generally accepted best practices unless there is a compelling
ethical reason to do otherwise. Additionally, the consequences of data aggregation and
emergent properties of systems should be carefully analyzed. Those involved with pervasive or
infrastructure systems should also consider Principle 3.7.
A computing professional has an additional obligation to report any signs of system risks that
might result in harm. If leaders do not act to curtail or mitigate such risks, it may be necessary to
"blow the whistle" to reduce potential harm. However, capricious or misguided reporting of risks
can itself be harmful. Before reporting risks, a computing professional should carefully assess
relevant aspects of the situation.
1.3 Be honest and trustworthy.
Honesty is an essential component of trustworthiness. A computing professional should be
transparent and provide full disclosure of all pertinent system capabilities, limitations, and
potential problems to the appropriate parties. Making deliberately false or misleading claims,
fabricating or falsifying data, offering or accepting bribes, and other dishonest conduct are
violations of the Code.
Computing professionals should be honest about their qualifications, and about any limitations
in their competence to complete a task. Computing professionals should be forthright about any
circumstances that might lead to either real or perceived conflicts of interest or otherwise tend to
undermine the independence of their judgment. Furthermore, commitments should be honored.
Computing professionals should not misrepresent an organization's policies or procedures, and
should not speak on behalf of an organization unless authorized to do so.
1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
The values of equality, tolerance, respect for others, and justice govern this principle. Fairness
requires that even careful decision processes provide some avenue for redress of grievances.
Computing professionals should foster fair participation of all people, including those of
underrepresented groups. Prejudicial discrimination on the basis of age, color, disability,
ethnicity, family status, gender identity, labor union membership, military status, nationality,
race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation, or any other inappropriate factor is an explicit
violation of the Code. Harassment, including sexual harassment, bullying, and other abuses of
power and authority, is a form of discrimination that, amongst other harms, limits fair access to
the virtual and physical spaces where such harassment takes place.
The use of information and technology may cause new, or enhance existing, inequities.
Technologies and practices should be as inclusive and accessible as possible and computing
professionals should take action to avoid creating systems or technologies that disenfranchise
or oppress people. Failure to design for inclusiveness and accessibility may constitute unfair
discrimination.
1.5 Respect the work required to produce new ideas, inventions, creative works, and computing artifacts.
Developing new ideas, inventions, creative works, and computing artifacts creates value for
society, and those who expend this effort should expect to gain value from their work.
Computing professionals should therefore credit the creators of ideas, inventions, work, and
artifacts, and respect copyrights, patents, trade secrets, license agreements, and other methods
of protecting authors' works.
Both custom and the law recognize that some exceptions to a creator's control of a work are
necessary for the public good. Computing professionals should not unduly oppose reasonable
uses of their intellectual works. Efforts to help others by contributing time and energy to projects
that help society illustrate a positive aspect of this principle. Such efforts include free and open
source software and work put into the public domain. Computing professionals should not claim
private ownership of work that they or others have shared as public resources.
1.6 Respect privacy.
The responsibility of respecting privacy applies to computing professionals in a particularly
profound way. Technology enables the collection, monitoring, and exchange of personal
information quickly, inexpensively, and often without the knowledge of the people affected.
Therefore, a computing professional should become conversant in the various definitions and
forms of privacy and should understand the rights and responsibilities associated with the
collection and use of personal information.
Computing professionals should only use personal information for legitimate ends and without
violating the rights of individuals and groups. This requires taking precautions to prevent re-
identification of anonymized data or unauthorized data collection, ensuring the accuracy of data,
understanding the provenance of the data, and protecting it from unauthorized access and
accidental disclosure. Computing professionals should establish transparent policies and
procedures that allow individuals to understand what data is being collected and how it is being
used, to give informed consent for automatic data collection, and to review, obtain, correct
inaccuracies in, and delete their personal data.
Only the minimum amount of personal information necessary should be collected in a system.
The retention and disposal periods for that information should be clearly defined, enforced, and
communicated to data subjects. Personal information gathered for a specific purpose should not
be used for other purposes without the person's consent. Merged data collections can
compromise privacy features present in the original collections. Therefore, computing
professionals should take special care for privacy when merging data collections.
1.7 Honor confidentiality.
Computing professionals are often entrusted with confidential information such as trade secrets,
client data, nonpublic business strategies, financial information, research data, pre-publication
scholarly articles, and patent applications. Computing professionals should protect
confidentiality except in cases where it is evidence of the violation of law, of organizational
regulations, or of the Code. In these cases, the nature or contents of that information should not
be disclosed except to appropriate authorities. A computing professional should consider
thoughtfully whether such disclosures are consistent with the Code.
2. PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES.
A computing professional should…
2.1 Strive to achieve high quality in both the processes and products of professional work.
Computing professionals should insist on and support high quality work from themselves and
from colleagues. The dignity of employers, employees, colleagues, clients, users, and anyone
else affected either directly or indirectly by the work should be respected throughout the
process. Computing professionals should respect the right of those involved to transparent
communication about the project. Professionals should be cognizant of any serious negative
consequences affecting any stakeholder that may result from poor quality work and should
resist inducements to neglect this responsibility.
2.2 Maintain high standards of professional competence, conduct, and ethical practice.
High quality computing depends on individuals and teams who take personal and group
responsibility for acquiring and maintaining professional competence. Professional competence
starts with technical knowledge and with awareness of the social context in which their work
may be deployed. Professional competence also requires skill in communication, in reflective
analysis, and in recognizing and navigating ethical challenges. Upgrading skills should be an
ongoing process and might include independent study, attending conferences or seminars, and
other informal or formal education. Professional organizations and employers should encourage
and facilitate these activities.
2.3 Know and respect existing rules pertaining to professional work.
"Rules" here include local, regional, national, and international laws and regulations, as well as
any policies and procedures of the organizations to which the professional belongs. Computing
professionals must abide by these rules unless there is a compelling ethical justification to do
otherwise. Rules that are judged unethical should be challenged. A rule may be unethical when
it has an inadequate moral basis or causes recognizable harm. A computing professional should
consider challenging the rule through existing channels before violating the rule. A computing
professional who decides to violate a rule because it is unethical, or for any other reason, must
consider potential consequences and accept responsibility for that action.
2.4 Accept and provide appropriate professional review.
High quality professional work in computing depends on professional review at all stages.
Whenever appropriate, computing professionals should seek and utilize peer and stakeholder
review. Computing professionals should also provide constructive, critical reviews of others'
work.
2.5 Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of possible risks.
Computing professionals are in a position of trust, and therefore have a special responsibility to
provide objective, credible evaluations and testimony to employers, employees, clients, users,
and the public. Computing professionals should strive to be perceptive, thorough, and objective
when evaluating, recommending, and presenting system descriptions and alternatives.
Extraordinary care should be taken to identify and mitigate potential risks in machine learning
systems. A system for which future risks cannot be reliably predicted requires frequent
reassessment of risk as the system evolves in use, or it should not be deployed. Any issues that
might result in major risk must be reported to appropriate parties.
2.6 Perform work only in areas of competence.
A computing professional is responsible for
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