ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net

Globalization, Terrorism and the State

Sertif Demir  -Ali Bilgin Varlık



Abstract: The main discussion point of this article is to explore the cause-effect relation between the weakening of nation state and the intensification of global terrorism by the influence of

globalization. The main thesis of the article is that the malign effects of globalization have

considerably weakened nation states or dragged them into a situation in which the security

and stability would no longer be sustained as desired. Global terrorism can stem from the

adverse effects of globalization, imbalance of power, disparity of players, and power

vacuum. Failed states, separatist minorities and radicals use terrorism as warfare in order

to counterbalance the power gap or to consolidate their authority. In order to verify/nullify

the main thesis, we sought answers for three main issues: consequences of globalization;

influence of globalization on terrorism; and lessons learned from terrorism. Our study has

come to a conclusion that the most reliable way to cope with the challenges of the new

form of terrorism is to strengthen the nation state concept in democratic, laic, social and

legal terms.

Key Words: Globalization, nation state, terrorism, global terrorism.

 Associated Professor, The University of İzmir, the Department of International Relations,

[email protected] 

Assistant Professor, The University of Esenyurt, the Department of Politics Science and International

Relations. He is also strategist at the Institute of 21st Century Turkey, [email protected]|

Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık

ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net

| 37

Introduction

Hardly few other concepts have been argued or associated with each other as globalization and

terrorism. And hardly few factors other than globalization and terrorism have eroded the states.

During the last two decades and particularly after September 11, 2001 (9/11), terrorism turned into

‘global terrorism’ and emerged as a new form of threat for both national and international security.

Now we have quite a satisfactory literature, which broadens views but helps little to

overcome the issue. This article does not propose any miracle solution to overcome terrorism, which

is not argued before, but makes analyses in order to depict basic principles for handling the issue.

The main thesis of the article is that the malign effects of globalization has considerably

weakened nation states or dragged them into a situation in which the security and stability would no

longer be sustained as desired while promoting terrorism to a global strength. The first

complementary thesis is that there appears to be an interrelated and intermingled structure between

globalization, terrorism and the state. The second complementary thesis is that the nation state, which

was the strongest means to counter global terrorism, is severely influenced by globalization. In other

words, global world cannot overcome global terrorism, while underpinning the nation state. The

spread of globalization considerably weakened nation states. The third complementary thesis is that

terrorism has gained extraordinary power than previously experienced in the contemporary globalized

world. So the main discussion point of this study is to explore the correlation between the weakening

of nation state and the intensification of global terrorism that might result from the spread of

globalization.

In order to verify or nullify the acceptance of the thesis, we tried to answer the following

three questions:

– What are the consequences of globalization from security perspective?

– How did terrorism diversify by the influence of globalization?

– What did we learn from the experience of global terrorism?

Theoretical Framework

Before starting, in order to draw the parameters of level of analysis one needs to underline the

approaches and methodologies, which explain the concept of globalization. The easiest but the worst

is to make an analysis based upon the results of a phenomenon. This approach, while giving the

opportunity to reach direct and practical conclusions, hides the causes and the sources feeding the

problem, which enables to reach true diagnosis for defining the issue. So there is no way to answer

the question except for arguing the concept of globalization.

Theorizing Difficulty

Difficulty of theorizing the concept of globalization steams from two reasons. The first is the trouble

of access to reliable information; the second is the complex nature of the concept.

Concerning with the access to reliable information about globalization, there occur four basic

issues. These are: lack of scientific impartiality, limitation on comprehensiveness, lack of historical

background, and difficulty to make synthesis on a live concept.

Firstly, the information created is not objective and polarized between globalists and

skeptics. 1 Both of these approaches are mostly based on results or reflections of globalization rather

than the causes. So their analysis turns to a cons and pros struggle which helps little for a dialectical

quality of survey.

Globalization, Terrorism and the State

Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015

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Secondly, some surveys which put more emphasis on some aspects of globalization while

underestimating the others turn the analysis to “the blind man’s definition of elephant” 2 .

Thirdly, globalization has been imposed as a de facto notion which explains all today’s and

tomorrow’s world but has hardly few about the past. 3 This approach also conceptualizes the fact on a

shallow basis so the real value cannot be assessed properly.

Finally, on the formation of the concept, still additional arguments emerge while some basic

thesis has already collapsed. This prevents analyzers to make sound decisions on the subject.

As a conclusion, except for determinist approaches which explain globalization with linear

relations, a great majority of analysis agrees with the fact that globalization is multi-dimensional and

complex in nature. Unless each ingredient of the concept is assessed and the interrelationship between

the factors is defined, it will be very challenging to expound the globalization. At this point we will

be content with the affirmation that there is no other complex political system than globalization. 4

Approaches to Globalization

Globalization, in general, can be defined as the free movement of capital, goods, knowledge,

manpower and services among countries due to the increased technological and scientific

improvements and diminished state-centric power. Globalization is the process of integration of

cultures. It comes out of the interaction of people from different cultures and societies. Globalization

is inherently an economic-originated notion. However, currently it has gained a meaning embracing a

political, economical, cultural, sociological and technological formation, which has led to a more

integrated world. Ideologically, it was defined as a new phase of capitalism and interrelated with post-

modernism.

Having considered this amalgam structure and complex and contentious differences, our aim

is to explore the impact of globalization on terror incidents; whether globalization is a catalyzing

factor for the increase of terrorism or not. Thus, we have to focus on delineating this interrelation with

a theoretical support. In this context, approaches on theorizing globalization could be classified

mainly under four titles: 1) novelty, 2) flashback, 3) permanency and 4) transformation. 5

The Novelty approach

Mostly suggested by the neo-liberals, the novelty approach asserts that globalization has a

unique characteristic as a result of innovative forms of technology, global economy, and

communication infrastructure emerged in recent history. Postmodernists also confirm the novelty

approach with their motto that has left reality and modern conceptions behind, as well as the world of

modernity 6 . According to advocates of the novelty approach, with the demise of Cold War era we

experienced the end of history and a new world order. This new world order ignites political,

economical and cultural changes, which have never occurred before. The globalization is the end

point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the

final form of human government. 7 Besides Fukuyama, extremists of this approach consider

globalization as the first form of global civilization. 8

The novelty approach lacks historical consistency and it does not explain the globalization

which takes place in different parts of the world, except for the West. Additionally it does not even

cover the globalization experienced in the social layers of the western world. Furthermore, its

prominent thesis that the world economy had never internationalized before is quite open to

discussion since not verified by historical and economical data. 9 Thus we consider it too deterministic

to explain the hybrid structure of globalization.

Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık

ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net

| 39

The Flashback approach

Generally supported by radical leftists and some conservatives, the flashback approach

suggests that today’s globalization overlaps with the world order prior to World War I. The collapse

of bipolar international environment has rotated the flow of capital and trade to the level before the

World War I. According to supporters of this approach the world has flashed back to the era of the

ferocious imperialistic competitions, and the contemporary situation under the leadership of US is a

new form of the 18 th and 19

th centuries’ globalization which took place in the lead of UK.

10

The flashback approach repeats the novelty approach’s shortfall on historical consistency, by

disregarding the fact that no social formation could be reiterated. Particularly, conservatives’ attempt

to impose the globalization as a moral value rather than historical phenomena is a major contradiction

with the reality and is too subjective to be scientific. Thus, we consider it too holistic to explain

differences of contemporary globalization.

The Permanency approach

The permanency approach affirms that there have never been sudden drastic changes in the

mankind history, neither has globalization . Globalization is not an unexpected legendary event as

globalists present but, is an operation of nonbelligerent logic of capitalism and geo-economic

imperialism. According to backers of the approach, globalization is the subjective volitional

ideological project of transnational corporations and international finance organizations rather than an

objective reality. 11

Capitalism is a hegemonic global system in nature and sees the world as a whole

economic structure since its evolution. 12

Generally supported by skeptics, the approach suggests that

today’s globalization is not different than the globalization in 1850 and 1910 and limited

geographically with the north hemisphere and functionally with financial markets. 13

Although the permanency approach uses an acceptable historical methodology, and defines

successfully the limits of contemporary globalization, it neither estimates the dramatic and systematic

shift after the big bang of 1970’s and 1980’s globalization nor appropriately reads the importance and

distinctive roles of technology and communication. The approach could also be criticized by being

economically centric.

The transformation approach

The transformation approach mostly supported by social scientists accepts that a historical

shift has been experienced. Transformationists do not reject the notion that historical changes result

from a series of previous events. Accordingly, the globalization process, started at the beginning of

19 th century and stalled by the world wars and the Cold War, has revived as from 1970’s, has been

accelerating and turning to a permanent structure. According to the transformation approach

advocates, world economies and communication systems have established a structure in which

peoples, cultures and states have intermingled throughout the modern times; and recent developments

have shifted us to a new qualitative dimension. In several ways globalization is a new and dramatic

progress as well as being part of a historical process. At the last phase of globalization a new global

way of cooperation has superseded previous center-periphery relationship while an anachronism has

been exacerbating. 14

An Assessment of the Approaches to Globalization from Security Perspective

Contrary to the novelty approach, the transformation approach advocates reject that the nation state

has ended, but maintain that the relationship between the stakeholders of the authority has been

reorganized according to the new world order. They reject the flashback approach’s hypothesis of

“nothing has changed”, but deem globalization as a derivative of the Illumination Age of the Western

World. According to that, globalization is the new realization of modernity concept on social,

Globalization, Terrorism and the State

Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015

| 40

economical, cultural and philosophical dimensions throughout the world. Different than the

permanency approach, they believe that globalization is not only a temporary dictation of the

capitalists but an unavoidable structure which shapes -to some extent commands- today’s world. So,

some measures to be taken could mitigate malign effects while creating opportunities to benefit from

the globalization. On the other hand, as being less holistic than the flashback approach, the

permanency approach provides some useful data for comprehensive assessments on security

perspective of globalization.

After these comparisons, we reach to the conclusion that the comprehensive and the

transformation approaches give relatively more appropriate data to analyze the consequences of

globalization from security perspective than the other too deterministic and more holistic approaches.

Implication of Globalization from Security Perspective

Globalization has a complex and amalgam structure, and has economical, technological, historical,

political, social and other dimensions, and numerous effects on security. Contrary to its advantages,

chances and positive influences, one can hardly comment optimistically on its effects on security,

because of two reasons: The first is its deteriorating influence on nation state’s power; and the second

is its relationship with terrorism.

Deteriorating Influence of Globalization on Nation State’s Power

Consequences of globalization could be summarized basically on two folds; the first is the chaos of

the new world order, which provokes instability; the second is the erosion observed in the nation state

due to globalization. The former is concerned with historical, social, economical, technological,

military and other imbalances moved by the globalization. The latter is a matter of structural,

institutional and processional transformation of the anarchic international environment as well as the

security atmosphere in which dramatic power shifts occurred against monopoly of the state. In other

words, as stated by Keohane and Nye 15

, globalization and economic interdependence has changed

basic parameters of conventional [Westphalian] system of states” to an anarchic environment in

which multiple channels of interdependence between new international actors added to the states.

These two groups of consequences of globalization are related with each other and establish a

complex and hybrid structure.

The Chaos of the New World Order

From historical perspective, globalization has always been a power-based process of the

hegemonic states and capitalism to shape and rule the world. Historically, this power had always been

projected by the West: The first wave of globalization started with the “Exploration of the New

World” and was institutionalized as colonialism during the period of 1480-1750. The second phase

started just before the “Industry Revolution” and was institutionalized as imperialism or new

colonialism during 1750-1914 era. The third phase started 1914, even though hampered by world

wars and their aftermaths; continued with the impulse of multinational corporations’ championship

that started in 1970’s; climbed with the “Communication Revolution” in 1980’s; and reached its peak

with the “New World Order” after Western World’s victory over the East in 1990’s. 16

Social ataxias of globalization include historically rooted philosophical, psychological and

cultural features. Social observations also vary depending on where you are, where you are looking

and the period of time you are observing. From this context, any evaluation made by those who are

not from the leading side of globalization (“unglobalized” and “non-leading globalizers”), the

“struggle of the West with the rest” would be a better term than the “clash of civilizations”.

Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık

ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net

| 41

Globalization has been imposed as the highest level of civilization and morality by those who are

leading globalization (globalizers) but from unglobalized and non-leading globalizers’ perspective,

that does not drop the tension and bilateral phobias between the cultures and the religions, fostered by

globalization.

From economic perspective, although economically it helps to increase gross global product,

the amount of direct international investments, the role of transnational corporations, liquidity of

capital and global finance, it worsens the gap between rich and poor, and weakens states’ defensive

apparatus to protect national economy and to localize labor force within the national boundaries.

Wealthy nations while preserving their quotas, economic subventions and incentives for their

homeland segments and conducting economic rescue operations for failed allies, belligerently apply

“bitter prescriptions” or “shock therapies” for a “free market economy” on the “liberated” states 17

. So

globalization neither means equality in chances and opportunities nor just and even distribution of

wealth.

Differentiation on production and service, information and military technologies has shifted

social layers, and reduced competitiveness of developing economies. Countries other than those

which are located at the core, are to suffice a peripheric or semi-peripheric location with low profit

and inadequate efficiency at the best or to be ousted from the economic race.

From technological perspective, there is no doubt that globalization promoted humankind to

reach post-industrial layer of technology which is called “Information Age”. The good news that

globalization brought along “democracy of information” is still debatable since information and

knowledge portals are still in the monopoly of some centers, but spoiled information is everywhere.

“Global Village” thesis forwarded by Marshall McLuhan in 1962, still needs to be proved against the

numerous data attesting that basic health, communication, and education technologies are still luxury

in most regions of the world.

Developments in the military technologies, while creating huge gaps between the

conventional forces of the Western World and their potential rivals, have increased desire for

weapons of mass destruction, for using terrorism militarily and for other asymmetric warfare

methods, which violate international law and poses fatal threats to the security of the anti-Western

states.

The Erosion Observed in the Nation State due to Globalization

As noted above, historically globalization has followed three phases. During the first and the

second phases, central authorities always hampered or at least canalized the free trade market flow,

and dominant powers did not want to lose their authority. In the third phase, particularly after the

collapse of bipolar world system, liquidation of capital, financial operations, interventions of

international financial organizations in national economies have either hampered or softened central

authorities’ dictations on economy. The third phase has promoted a less bloodshed type of free trade,

which is backed by organizations, systems and procedures rather than hegemonic states’ hard power.

It is generally accepted that globalization has reduced nation state power. During the last

phase of globalization, it was discussed that nation states would eventually disappear from political

life and new form of power centers will replace them. However, recent developments have not

sufficient evidence to prove that nation state fades as supporters of globalization expected. Instead, it

is argued that the nation state is ‘neither retaining its primacy nor disappearing but becoming

transformed and absorbed into a TNS (Trans-National State) 18

. The emerging TNS is composed of

international institutions like World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of

International Settlements (BIS), European Union (EU), World Trade Organization (WTO) and North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Nation states continue to carry out important functions,

but these have been increasingly transnationalized, as macroeconomic policy becomes increasingly

Globalization, Terrorism and the State

Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015

| 42

focused on appropriate fiscal, monetary, trade and investment policies that allow for the

intensification of transnationalization. Thus, welfare and developmental states have been transformed

into neo-liberal states. 19

More than any of its impact, the complex structure of globalization not only has inflated

disparities and contrarieties but also created paradoxical shifts on the parameters of the world system

that we knew. Globalization, while promoting standardization, global affinity, unity and intermingled

interdependency on the one hand, provokes localization, disparity, definition of identities on a smaller

level than nation on the other hand. 20

Influences of globalization have not been unified because of historical, social and economic

diversities throughout the world. For example, while shaping the Western World particularly Europe

as unified not only on value base but in economic and political dimension, globalization had

fragmented some nation states into ethnic and religious factions in the rest of the world. The last wave

of globalization concurrent with the collapse of Iron Curtain helped masses to question not only the

boundaries of state authority and legitimacy of the ruling regimes throughout the world, but also

citizen, women and minority rights. Diffusion of multi-ethnic national states left the ground to ethnic

and religious unities mostly after fierce fightings, atrocities and genocides.

Policies and strategies like “preventive strike”, “crusade”, “just war” and “humanitarian

intervention”, which created polarization among cultures, have not only made arguable the classical

use of force concept accepted by the international law, but also set new processes and procedures

which eroded nation states’ hegemonic power.

New players like anti-globalist or counter-state civil society organizations, NGOs and

GONGOs (Government Oriented/Backed NGOs) loosened previously established firm ties of the

states on the society and shifted anarchic political arena to a more chaotic atmosphere than ever.

Emerging as a new sector of big capitals, the media fastened its position as the forth power -after

legislation, execution, and judiciary- and turned out to be a means of information warfare.

In addition to the negative influences of globalization, almost all positive impacts of

globalization have also deteriorated nation states’ control over society. The erosion within local

cultures and traditional social bonds has underpinned nation state’s authority, while diminishing

mental boundaries and increasing transparency of physical international borders and the importance

of individualism.

So, regardless of being good or bad, globalization has eroded nation sate’s power, and

transformed the international environment into a multi-dimensional and multi-cultural atmosphere in

which nation states are no longer the main determinant actors. Now, we are experiencing a world in

which power could no longer be identified as a linear, hierarchic, state-oriented and state-controlled

phenomenon. This dramatic change on concept of power has transformed the role of the nation state

during the last phase of globalization.

As a result of this assessment we concluded that the new world order in the last phase of

globalization, and its consequences have dramatically changed and weakened nation state’s power

and its control on internal and external policy. 21

The Relationship between Terrorism and Globalization

The linkage between increased terrorist activities and globalization can hardly be proven due to some

difficulties. First, it is difficult to state that globalization is the only driven-factor behind the

outnumbered terrorism. Second, violent methods aiming at political aspirations have existed before

global process. There is no clear-cut finding that delineates or justifies this thesis. However, it can be

Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık

ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net

| 43

argued that globalism has created some conditions that can trigger the use of violence in order to

realize political aims. As globalization is deemed the culprit of the uneven distribution of wealth,

growth of poverty, de-emphasis of nation states, and regional impoverishment, the violence or use of

power against the globalism can be applied and these acts can be assessed as terror by global factors.

In this case, human security is offered by Alan Miller 22

as a protection against those marginalized by

globalization:

“Security from terror can only be assured if human security is provided for

those marginalized by globalization, and development can only be sustained

if those in the most need are empowered to claim their right to development

and the satisfaction of their rights to an adequate standard of living.”

There are many views regarding the connection between globalism and terrorism. Nassar 23

dissects globalization through the concepts of interdependence, liberalization, universalization,

westernization, and capitalism. He shows the relationship of globalization with violence and advances

a coherent definition of terrorism (that includes actions by governments) based on material reality.

Terrorism is perceived "in a complex political context". Central to the theme is the thesis of "the

migration of dreams" as a consequence of cultural and technological globalization and "the migration

of nightmares" as a consequence of global violence and terrorism. Here, violence is understood in

broad terms: colonialism, transnational corporate exploitation, and the US imperial project are all

faces of violence and terror. The author looks at the root causes of terror and considers that

globalization has increased the gap between rich and poor, which, in turn, has enhanced the prospects

of violent responses. State-sponsored terrorism also has enhanced those prospects.

As the conclusion, globalization is a matter of historical development, which establishes

Western values, institutions, interests, and security conditions while spreading out the capitalist

economic, social and political order with the help of monetary, technological, and military power.

Globalization is a fact and a historical process with its pluses and minuses but terrorism is a moral

defect and a crime against humanity. Any organization us

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