Joint Evaluation2006:1

John Telford

John Cosgrave

Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami Synthesis Report

Joint Evaluation 2006:1

Authors: John Telford, John Cosgrave, contributions from Rachel Houghton.

The views and interpretations expressed in this report are the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida, Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC) Actionaid, AusAID, BMZ CIDA, Cordaid, Danida,Dara, Irish Aid, DFID, FAO, IFRD, Federal Min for Economic Cooperation and Development Germany, JICA, Min des Affaires Étrangères France, Min des Affaires Étrangères Luxembourg, Norad, NZAID, DEZA, UN, UNDP, UNFPA, Unicef, Usaid, WFP, WHO, World Vision.

Commissioned by Sida, TEC, Actionaid, BMZ, CIDA, Coraid, Danida, Dara, Irish Aid, DFID, FAO, IFRD Federal Min for Economic Cooperation and Development Germany, JICA, Min des Affaires Étrangères France, Min des Affaires Étrangères Luxembourg, Norad, NZAID, DEZA, UN, UNDP, UNFPA, Unicef, Usaid, WFP, WHO, World Vision.

Copyright: The authors and the organisations commissioning the evaluation.

Date of Final Report: July 2006

Published by: Edita

Art. no. SIDA61330en

This publication was originally published by Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC) and can be ordered from:http://www.alnap.org or [email protected]

This digital edition is a special version only published in Sida’s publication data base and can be downloaded from: www.sida.se /publications.

12

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

Acronyms and abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Thailand

AIDMI All India Disaster Mitigation Institute (formerly DMI)

ALNAP Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in

humanitarian action

BAKORNAS National Disaster Management Board, Indonesia

BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Nasional (Ministry of Planning),

Indonesia

BPDE Badan Pengelola Data Elektronik Electronic Data Management Body

BPS Badan Pusat Statistik BPS-Statistics Indonesia (Central Statistics

Board)

BRIMOB Indonesian paramilitary police

BRR Aceh and Nias Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CBO community based organisation

CDC Centres for Disease Control

CERF Until 2006, the Central Emergency Revolving Fund, now the Central

Emergency Response Fund

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

CIESIN Centre for International Earth Science Information Network

CM-COORD Civil–military Coordination

CMG Core Management Group of the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

CRC Canadian Red Cross

CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters

DAC Development Assistance Committee

DAD Development Assistance Database

Danida Danish International Development Assistance

DDPM Department for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Thailand

DEC Disasters Emergency Committee, UK

DFID UK Department For International Development

13

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

DIPECHO disaster preparedness ECHO

DRC Danish Refugee Council

DRR disaster risk reduction

EAC Evaluation Advisor and Coordinator

EC European Commission

ECHO European Commission’s Humanitarian Office

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation (of the United Nations)

FTS Financial Tracking System

GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh Movement)

GBP British pounds sterling

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHD Good Humanitarian Donorship initiative

HC Humanitarian Coordinator

HIC Humanitarian Information Centre

HPG Humanitarian Policy Group at the Overseas Development Institute

HRR Humanitarian Response Review

IASC Interagency Standing Committee

IAWG Interagency Working Group

ICMH International Centre for Migration and Health

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

ICVA International Council of Voluntary Agencies

IDP internally displaced person

IDRL international disaster response law

IFI international financial institution

IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

ILO International Labour Organisation

INGO international non-governmental organisation

IOM International Organisation for Migration

IRCS Iranian Red Crescent Society

ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

LRRD linking relief, rehabilitation and development

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MDTFANS Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Aceh and Northern Sumatra

MoU Memorandum of Understanding

MSF Médecins sans Frontières (Doctors without Borders)

NDMC National Disaster Management Centre

NGO non-governmental organisation

NRC Norwegian Refugee Council

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

ODA official development assistance

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PTWC Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

RC Red Cross and Red Crescent (Movement)

RC (UN) Resident Coordinator

RC/HC (UN) Resident Coordinator/Humanitarian Coordinator

RDC Researcher and Deputy Coordinator

SDC Swiss Development Corporation

14

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

SME small and medium-sized enterprise

TAFREN Presidential Task Force for Rebuilding the Nation (Sri Lanka)

TEC Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

TICA Thai International Cooperation Agency

TLC temporary living centre

TNI Indonesian military (Tentara Nasional Indonesia)

ToR terms of reference

UN United Nations

UNCT UN Country Team

UNDAC UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination

UNDGO UN Development Group Office

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNHAS UN Humanitarian Air Services

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNIFEM UN Development Fund for Women

UNJLC United National Joint Logistics Centre

UNORC United Nations Office of the Recovery Coordinator

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USD United States dollar

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organisation

15

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

Strait of Malacca

India

Indonesia

Thailand

Malaysia

Myanmar

Kuala Lumpur

Khao Lak

U-tapao

Aceh

Meulaboh Medan

Colombo

Male

Sri Lanka

Maldives

B a y o f B e n g a l A n d a m a n

S e a G u l f o f

T h a i l a n d Nicobar Islands (to India)

Andaman Islands (to India)

Bangkok

I N D I A N O C E A N

Chennai

Map 1. Countries affected by the tsunami

INDIA

BANGLADESH

SRI LANKA

MALAYSIA

MADAGASCAR

SOUTH AFRICA

SEYCHELLES

SOMALIA

KENYA

TANZANIA

YEMEN

MYANMAR (BURMA)

THAILAND

INDONESIA

MALDIVES

I N D I A N O C E A N

Detail above

33

See sources p159.

2.1 Immediate effects of the disaster

At 07.58 Aceh time on 26 December 2004, the biggest earthquake for 40

years struck off the west coast of Northern Sumatra. The earthquake led to

the most destructive series of tsunamis in recorded history, which radiated

through the Indian Ocean at speeds of more than 500km/h. The waves,

while not very big in deep water, slowed down and grew in size as they

reached shallower water near land. In the worst cases the waves reached

over 20m high at landfall in parts of Aceh; in other locations they spread

3km inland, carrying debris and salt water with them. The retreating waters

eroded whole shorelines.

The tsunamis killed people in 14 counties around the Indian Ocean. In

terms of lives lost and people missing, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and

Thailand were the hardest hit. By the end of January 2005, 40 other

countries had reported that their citizens were among the dead and 12

more reported that their citizens had been in the area and were feared

dead.22 Germany and Sweden were the worst affected counties outside the

region and lost more citizens (over 500 each) than all but the four most

affected counties.

The tsunami gripped the world’s attention, though news of the extent of the

tsunami emerged only slowly (Figure 2.1). The published death toll was

The disaster: an overview

2Chapter two

Country Number lost

Indonesia 167,540

Sri Lanka 35,322

India 16,269

Thailand 8,212

Somalia 289

Maldives 108

Malaysia 75

Myanmar 61

Tanzania 13

Seychelles 2

Bangladesh 2

Yemen 2

South Africa 2

Kenya 1

Total 227,898

Table 2.1. Numbers of

people lost (dead or

missing)21

21 Sources for tables and base data and sources for charts are presented in Annex G. Please refer to the page reference provided at the foot of each table or figure. 22 Table 3.1 gives details of those lost from outside the region. The numbers given in Table 2.1 include tourists from other countries who were killed or went missing in the affected countries.

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Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

See sources p153.

See sources p153.SourcesSourcesSourcesSourcesSources BBC, Channel AsiaNews, Agence France-Press, and The Guardian.

300

200

100

Figure 2.1. Changes in death toll (including missing) over the first month

Thousands dead or missing

0

26 D

ec

2 Ja

n

9 Ja

n

16 Ja

n

23 J

an

30 J

an

Figure 2.2. Age-specific tsunami mortality at five locations

(plus one historic disaster)

SourcesSourcesSourcesSourcesSources Figure 2.2a Doocy et al, 2006 (based on 291 deaths); Figure 2.2b Nishikiori et al, 2006 (based on 456 deaths); Figure 2.2c Birkmann et al, 2006 (based on 94 deaths); Figure 2.2d Guha-Sapir et al, 2006 (based on 231 deaths); Figure 2.2e Maldives Disaster Management Centre and Maldive 2000 Census data (based on 104 deaths); Figure 2.2f Chowdhury et al, 1993 (based on 1,206 deaths).

10%

5%

0%

Figure 2.2b. Ampara (Sri Lanka)

Age (years)

15%

20%

Mortality rate (%)

50+15–490–14

10%

5%

0%

Age (years)

15%

20%

Mortality rate (%)

50+15–490–14

Figure 2.2a. Aceh (Indonesia)

5%

0%

Figure 2.2c. Batticalao (Sri Lanka)

Age (years)

10%

Mortality rate (%)

60+11–590–10

5%

0%

Figure 2.2d. Tamil Nadu (India)

Age (years)

10%

Mortality rate (%)

50+15–490–14

1%

0%

Figure 2.2e. The Maldives

Age (years)Mortality rate (as % of population)

50+15–490–14

2%

10%

5%

0%

Figure 2.2f. Bangladesh storm

surge mortality (Bay of Bengal, 1991)

Age (years)

15%

Mortality rate (%)

50+15–490–14

See sources p152.

35

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

12,000 on 26 December 2004, and it was only on 30 December that it went over

the 100,000 mark. By the end of January 2005 the death toll stood at 286,000 only

to fall back by over 50,000 when Indonesia reduced its estimate for numbers

missing on 7 April.

The raw death toll tells only part of the story. Disproportionate numbers of the

most vulnerable people died. In the Maldives those aged 65 or over, though

comprising only 3.1 per cent of the population, accounted for 17.3 per cent of the

deaths, or five-and-a-half times the proportional level. Elsewhere the tsunami

typically claimed more of the under-15s and the over-50s, although countries

varied as to which of these two groups had the highest mortality rates (Figure 2.2).

More women than men died. This was highlighted early on when Oxfam

announced that, in the villages it had surveyed, there were three times as many

adult male survivors as female ones (Oxfam, 2005a). This was a very small

sample, however, and the ratio may have been due to specific factors in fishing

villages. Figure 2.3 shows the relative risk for females compared with males: a

value of 1 here would indicate equal risk of death for females and males, but the

data show that the relative risk varied from 1.2 (1.2 times as many women died) to

2.1. There were wide variations for individual villages.

The increased risk that flood events like the tsunami pose for children, the elderly

and, in this context, women is highlighted by historical data from the storm surges

in the Bay of Bengal in 1970 (Sommer and Mosley, 1972) and 1991 (Bern et al,

1993; Chowdhury et al, 1993). All of these instances show a realtively low

mortality rate for 15–49-year-olds and increased mortality rates for children and

older people.

The examples also show higher mortality rates for adult females compared with

adult males. The reasons given for the gender and age differences in survival rates

in these disasters are usually related to strength and stamina, and the ability to

swim or climb trees. One study in Tamil Nadu found that women who were able to

swim were more than twice as likely to survive (Guha-Sapir et al, 2006). However,

it is clear that factors such as location also play a role in determining survival.

See sources p154.SourcesSourcesSourcesSourcesSources Various. NoteNoteNoteNoteNote Some data points refer to relative mortality rather than relative risk.

A value of 2 indicates that women were twice as likely as men to be killed by the tsunami

1.0

0.5

0

1.5

2.0

1.0

0.5

0

1.5

2.0

B a n d a

A c e h

B a n d a

A c e h

A c e h

W e s t

C o a s t

A c e h

B a ra

t

M e u la

b o h

A c e h

E a s t

C o a s t

O th

e r

A c e h

A m

p a ra

D is

tr ic

t

G a ll e

B a tt

ic a la

o

T a m

il N

a d u

Figure 2.3. Tsunami mortality risk for females compared with males

36

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

The succession of tsunamis manifested differently in different locations. In Aceh

the tsunamis were walls of mud and debris, but by the time they reached the

Maldives they were more akin to a storm surge with a swell sweeping over the

islands. The ratio of dead to injured varied with location. While the ratio of

tsunami fatalities to injuries in Aceh seems to have been over 6:1,E3 the ratio was

1.53:1 in Sri Lanka (WHO, 2005) and 0.28:1 in Tamil Nadu (Guha-Sapir et al, 2006).

2.2 Media coverage

In late December, many factors combined to make the tsunami a key news story

that generated enormous media coverage: the lack of other news stories; the time

of year; the involvement of Western tourists; the geographical range of the

tsunami; the daily climbing death toll; the availability of dramatic amateur footage

of the waves hitting shore; and the celebrities who perished or survived.E4 The

tsunami was probably the most reported disaster up to that date.23

As shown in Figure 2.4, press coverage of the tsunami in the first six weeks was

more than the combined total coverage for the previous year for 10 key

humanitarian ‘stories’E5 selected by an expert panel (Jones, 2005). The tsunami

dominated the internet as well.24 All of this media attention, together with the time

23 The tsunami occurred prior to Hurricane Katrina, which also generated enormous media coverage. 24 A search for the phrase ‘Indian ocean tsunami’ on 5 April 2006 on Google indicates that there are 1,380,000 documents on the web bearing this phrase. The phrase ‘tsunami disaster’ returns nearly six million hits.

See sources p155.

Infectious disease

Colombia

Nepal

HIV/AIDS

Haiti

Chechnya

DRC conflict

West Africa

Northern Uganda

Sudan War

Tsunami (6 weeks)

0 10 20 30 40

Press citations (thousands) from 200 English language media sources from around the world

Figure 2.4. Tsunami press citations (for 12 months to February 2005)

37

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

See sources p159.NoteNoteNoteNoteNote D&L = damages and losses

Indonesia Sri Lanka India Maldives Thailand

Demographic impact

Population (million) 214.7 19.2 1,064.40 0.293 62

Population loss (incl. missing) 167,540 35,322 16,269 108 8,212

Population loss (incl. missing)

as % of total population 0.077% 0.184% 0.002% 0.037% 0.013%

Population loss in the

most affected province 2.3% 2.7% n/a n/a 1.5%

Economic impact

GDP per capita, US$ 970 950 564 2,440 2,306

Calculated GDP US$billion 208.3 18.2 600.3 0.7 143.0

Total D&L from tsunami, US$m 4,451 1,454 1,224 603 2,198

Total D&L from tsunami, % of GDP 2.0% 7.6% 0.2% 83.6% 1.4%

Most affected province D&L

as % of GDP of that province 97.0% 90.0% 4.0% 8.0%

Pre-disaster GDP growth rate 2005 5.4% 6.0% 7.2% 7.5% 6.0%

Revised GDP growth rate 2005 5.2% 5.4% 7.2% -1.7% 5.7%

Damage and losses

Damage, US$m 2,920 1,144 575 450 508

Damage, % of total D&L 65.6% 78.7% 47.0% 74.6% 23.1%

Losses, US$m 1,531 310 649 153 1,690

Losses, % of total D&L 34.4% 21.3% 53.0% 25.4% 76.9%

Losses, % of GDP 0.7% 1.5% 0.1% 21.3% 1.0%

Sectoral % of total damage

Housing 47.9% 36.0% 33.6% 20.9% 4.3%

Physic infrastructure 21.8% 23.9% 13.6% 27.3% 5.3%

Social sectors 9.5% 7.2% 1.9% 7.3% 1.8%

Productive sectors 12.1% 31.8% 46.1% 28.4% 88.6%

Other 8.8% 1.1% 4.9% 16.0% 0.0%

Remittances (for comparison only)

Remittances in US$bn (2004 est.) 4.6 1.3 23.0 1.6

As % of GDP (by calculation) 2.2% 7.1% 3.8% 1.1%

Remittances as % of D&L 103.3% 89.4% 1,879.1% 72.8%

Table 2.2. Demographic and economic impact of the tsunami25

of year, the level of association with those affected and familiarity with some of the

affected countries, prompted an unprecedented flood of both official and private

funding and of material assistance.

25 Please note the comments on the accuracy of this table in the text.

38

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

The coverage in the Western press was not balanced, however. For example, in a

survey of press coverage of humanitarian disasters, CARMA (2006) found that 40

per cent of the tsunami articles that dealt with the impact of the tsunami on people

looked at Western tourists (who accounted for just over 1 per cent of the

casualties). Partly as a result of all this media attention, hundreds of international

humanitarian agencies and military forces from nearby descended on the affected

counties in what some referred to as the ‘second tsunami’ (Brochard, 2005). The

result, as shown by examples throughout this report, was a largely muddled relief

operation in which ‘information circulated badly and coordination at times

appeared non-existent’ (IFRC, 2005b, p81).

The tsunami disaster threatened development. Economic, infrastructural and

human development losses, both actual and projected, were originally estimated at

some US$9.9bn across the affected region. This has to be contrasted with

international funding of at least US$13.5bn (See Section 3.6 below, on funding).

This does not represent 40 per cent over-funding as it may first appear, however,

as the US$13.5bn includes the cost of the international relief effort, some parts of

which were quite expensive (the US military services cost US$0.25bn alone). Also,

the figure for loss and damage does not include costs of transitional shelter or

livelihood support, all of which have to be borne by the response. Some initial cost

estimates (such as for housing) have proved optimistic, and some components of

the response have wasted money.26

Indonesia has borne the brunt of the losses, accounting for almost half of the total.

However, in terms of impact relative to the overall size of the economy the

Maldives was worst affected, with damage and losses equivalent to 83.6 per cent

of GDP (BRR and World Bank, 2005).

Table 2.2 shows both sustained and projected losses in five of the most affected

countries: India, Indonesia, the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Thailand. This table

should be interpreted with caution as it presents initial estimates of loss and

damage. Estimates of GDP growth were later revised and the figures for projected

losses were probably pessimistic. The economic impacts of disasters are dynamic

and complex (Benson and Clay, 2003), and the lumping together of damage (the

capital cost of rebuilding assets) with losses (expected lost income) is

problematic.E6

Despite the magnitude of the economic losses it is noticeable that, except for the

case of the Maldives, the loss and damage from the tsunami is not much more

than the value of remittances in 2004 for Sri Lanka and Thailand, slightly less than

2004 remittances to Indonesia, and only about 6 per cent of remittances for India.

In line with experiences from other disasters, remittance flows can be expected to

increase to the region following the tsunami (World Bank, 2006, p99). The data for

remittances are included in Table 2.2 not to suggest that remittance flows can

replace international assistance, but merely to highlight the relative size of these

flows compared to the tsunami impact.

26 For example, the wholly unsuitable fishing boats supplied by Kuwait via the Kuwaiti Red Crescent Society that were unfit for use in Aceh (Schulze, 2005, pp14–15).

39

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

Economic data need to be considered at the provincial level, and not just at the

national level. Total damage and economic losses in Aceh alone are estimated at

some US$4.5bn – equal to almost the entire GDP of Aceh (BAPPENAS and World

Bank, 2005). The extent of this localised devastation reveals the real magnitude of

the disaster as it has affected local populations.

The overall impact of the tsunami should also be understood in terms of the type

of damage suffered: How many houses were lost? To what extent was the water

supply damaged? What happened in the productive sectors of fishing and

agriculture? Answers to these questions give some indication of the likely time –

and resources – required for recovery.

The sector that experienced most damage in Indonesia has been housing and

human settlements: 141,000 houses were destroyed, which accounts for 47.9 per

cent of the total damage (BRR & World Bank, 2005). Over 600,000 people in Aceh

lost their livelihoods (in some cases for only a few months) including all those in

the fishery sector and 30 per cent of those in agriculture (Government of

Indonesia, 2005). Different countries had different contexts, different economic

histories, and were under different economic stresses at the time of the tsunami.

Fisheries were hardest hit in India, but tourism was the worst affected sector in

Thailand and the Maldives (BRR and World Bank, 2005).E7

The devastation has reached far beyond lives lost and economic damage caused,

however. Disasters are increasingly recognised as having psychological and social

consequences (Mattock, 2005). This will necessarily affect the speed and nature of

the recovery and is proving a challenge to agencies designing livelihoods

programmes. The tsunami has also had an environmental impact. Land has been

contaminated by salt water, forests damaged and ecosystems disturbed.

The affected countries were already dealing with problems such as chronic

poverty, environmental degradation, displacement, poor governance, inequality,

overly bureaucratic administration systems, caste, conflict and weak respect for

human rights. Whole sections of populations were already marginalised, many as

a result of several different causes. It is these poorest groups, including the sick

and the elderly, those in remote locations, migrant workers and the landless – in

some cases all living within armed conflict areas – that have been the hardest hit

by the effects of the tsunami (TEC Capacities Report, 2006).

40 3.1 Pre-disaster risk reduction and early warning

Six months before the 2004 tsunami, the UN’s Intergovernmental

Oceanographic Commission warned that the ‘Indian Ocean has a significant

threat from both local and distant tsunamis’ (Revkin, 2004). Risk reduction

and preparedness prior to a disaster event can reduce fatalities. The Indian

Ocean region is at risk from natural hazards, including tropical cyclones,

tidal surges and earthquakes. Yet little attention was paid to these tsunami

risks as they were not considered to be a major hazard27 – even though

tsunamis killed many in Sumatra and Java following the Krakatoa eruption

in 1883.E8

Unlike the tsunami warning system in the Pacific, set up after a tsunami

killed 159 people in Hawaii in 1946, no tsunami warning system had been

installed in the Indian Ocean.28 And while the Hawaii Pacific Tsunami

Warning Center (PTWC) issued a bulletin to its regular circulation list29 in

the Pacific basin informing that a tsunami watch was advised within 15

minutes of the December 2004 earthquake, it did not warn affected

countries (which were all outside the Pacific Ocean) of the possibility of a

tsunami.

The response

3Chapter three

27 A 2004 publication from ADPC lists Indonesia as facing a low relative intensity of tsunami hazards and does not even include tsunamis in the table of nine hazards in the South East Asia region (Abarquez and Murshed, 2004, p137). 28 An interim tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean is expected to be operational by the end of July 2006. 29 Anyone can join the circulation list by submitting their email address via a link on the PTWC site: www.prh.noaa.gov/ptwc.

41

Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Synthesis Report

Despite the absence of a formal system, some life-saving warnings were

given – mostly by ordinary people. Traditional knowledge helped to save

tribes on India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the worst of the

tsunami (Bhaumik, 2005). Phonecalls to family members in India advised

them to evacuate (IFRC, 2005b, p16) and a 10-year-old British tourist

recognised the signs of a tsunami from her geography class. This led to

more than 100 people evacuating a beach and hotel (BBC, 2005a).

There were reports that a warning to the mainland from the Indian military

in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands went unheeded. Apparently, the

Indian meteorological service sent a warning fax to a former minister of

science rather than the incumbent (Singh, 2004). In Thailand, the head of

the Meteorological Service was sacked because he had decided not to issue

a warning (Associated Press, 2005; Watts, 2005).

These warnings were far from generalised, however. While parts of

Indonesia were struck within 20 minutes, Thai officials discussed the

earthquake and tsunami risk an hour before the waves struck but decided

against causing a panic (Financial Times, 2005). It was more than an hour-

and-a-half before Sri Lanka was hit, ample time for a warning to circulate. In

the Maldives, 108 people were killed when the tsunami struck three hours

after the earthquake. Wider knowledge of the nature of tsunamis, the ability

to swim,E9 or simple systems for communicating warnings could have saved

many lives. Media organisations could, for example, have issued warnings for

India and Sri Lanka had they been better educated about the phenomenon.

Better construction would also have saved lives and property lost due to

both the tsunamis and the earthquake.30 Better disaster preparedness would

Box 3.1. The nature of disasters

Disasters can be defined as: ‘A serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human,

material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources’

(DHA, 1992, p27). The ability or capacity to cope is a key aspect of impact and response to a disaster, and the

assistance provided by national or international responses is intended to alleviate this shortfall in capacity.

Clearly a society (which can be a community, a province or a whole country) with greater capacity to cope with

the impact of any disaster event is less vulnerable to the effects of that disaster. Some disasters exceed the local

capacity but fall within the national capacity and need no international assistance.

There is a significant difference in the pattern of need for external assistance between the cases of sudden-onset

and slow-onset disasters (Figure 3.1).

Rapid-onset disasters, like the tsunami, have a very

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